Правительство Соединенных Штатов

the national economy. It regulates the sale of alcohol, tobacco and

firearms in interstate and foreign commerce; supervises the printing of

stamps for the U.S. Postal Service; operates the Secret Service, which

protects the president, the vice president, their families, and visiting

dignitaries and heads of state; suppresses counterfeiting of U.S. currency

and securities; and administers the Customs Service, which regulates and

taxes the flow of goods into the country. The department includes the

Office of the Comptroller of the Currency, the Treasury official who

executes the laws governing the operation of approximately 4,600 banks; and

the Internal Revenue Service (IRS), which administers tax laws—the source

of most of the federal government's revenue.

DEPARTMENT OF VETERANS AFFAIRS

The Department of Veterans Affairs, established as an independent agency in

1930 and elevated to Cabinet level in 1988, dispenses benefits and services

to eligible veterans of U.S. military service and their dependents. The

medicine and surgery department provides hospital and nursing home care,

and outpatient medical and dental services through 172 medical centers, 16

retirement homes, 228 clinics and 116 nursing homes in the United States,

Puerto Rico and the Philippines. It also supports veterans under care in

hospitals and nursing homes in 35 states. The veterans benefits department

oversees claims for disability, pensions, specially adapted housing and

other services. This department also administers education programs for

veterans, and provides housing credit assistance to eligible veterans and

active-duty service personnel. The memorial affairs department administers

the National Cemetery System, providing burial services, headstones and

markers to eligible veterans and their spouses within specially designated

cemeteries throughout the United States.

THE INDEPENDENT AGENCIES

The executive departments are the major operating units of | the federal

government, but there are many other agencies which have important

responsibilities for keeping the government and the economy working

smoothly. These are often called independent agencies, since they are not

part of the executive departments. The nature and purpose of these agencies

vary widely. Some are regulatory groups, with powers to supervise certain

sectors of the economy. Others provide special services, either to the

government or to the people. In most cases, the agencies have been created

by Congress to deal with matters that have become too complex for the scope

of ordinary legislation. The Interstate Commerce Commission, for example,

was established by Congress in 1887 to curb the growing power of the

railroads. In recent years, however, a trend toward deregulation of the

economy has altered the functions of many federal regulatory bodies. Among

the most important independent agencies are the following:

action is the principal federal agency for administering domestic volunteer

service programs to meet basic human needs, and to support the self-help

efforts of poor individuals and communities. Some of action's programs are

Foster Grandparents, offering older Americans opportunities for close

relationships with needy children; Volunteers in Service to America

(VISTA), which provides volunteers to work in poor communities; and Student

Community Service Projects, which encourages students to volunteer in their

communities as part of their education.

central intelligence agency (cia) coordinates intelligence activities of

certain government departments and agencies; collects, correlates and

evaluates intelligence information relating to national security; and makes

recommendations to the National Security Council.

environmental protection agency (epa), founded in 1970, works with state

and local governments throughout the United States to control and abate

pollution in the air and water, and to deal with the problems of solid

waste, pesticides, radiation and toxic substances. EPA sets and enforces

standards for air and water quality, evaluates the impact of pesticides and

chemical substances, and manages the so-called "Superfund" program for

cleaning toxic waste sites.

the federal communications commission licenses the operation of radio and

television stations and regulates interstate telephone and telegraph

services. It sets rates for interstate communications services, assigns

radio frequencies, and administers international communications treaties.

the federal reserve system supervises the private banking system of the

United States. It regulates the volume of credit and money in circulation.

The Federal Reserve performs many of the functions of central banks in

other countries, such as issuing paper currency; unlike central banks,

however, it does not act as the depository of the country's gold reserve.

the federal trade commission guards against trade abuses and unfair

business practices by conducting investigations and holding hearings on

complaints.

the general accounting office is an arm of the legislative branch that

oversees expenditures by the executive branch. It is headed by the

comptroller general of the United States. It settles or

adjusts—independently of the executive departments—all claims and demands

by or against the federal government, and all money accounts in which the

government is concerned. It also checks the ledger accounts of all federal

disbursement and collection officers to see that public funds have been

paid out legally.

the general services administration controls much of the physical property

of the federal government. It is responsible for the purchase, supply,

operation and maintenance of federal property, buildings and equipment, and

for the sale of surplus items.

the interstate commerce commission regulates the rates and practices in

interstate commerce of all common carriers, such as railroads, buses,

trucks, and shipping on inland waterways. It supervises the issuance of

stocks and bonds by common carriers and enforces safety laws.

THE NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION (NASA), established in

1958 to run the U.S. space program, placed the first American satellites

and astronauts in orbit, and launched the Apollo spacecraft that landed men

on the moon in 1969. Today, NASA conducts research aboard Earth-orbiting

satellites and interplanetary probes, explores new concepts in advanced

aerospace technology, and operates the U.S. fleet of manned space shuttles.

In the 1990s, NASA will assemble, in space, the components for a permanent

space station manned by international crews from the United States, Europe

and Japan.

THE NATIONAL FOUNDATION ON THE ARTS AND THE HUMANITIES encourages the

development of American arts, literature and scholarship, through grants to

individuals, groups, institutions and state agencies.

the national labor relations board administers the principal U.S. labor

law, the National Labor Relations Act. The Board is vested with the power

to prevent or remedy unfair labor practices and to safeguard employees'

rights to organize and determine through elections whether to have unions

as their bargaining representative.

the national science foundation was created to strengthen basic research

and education in the sciences in the United States. It grants funds for

research and education programs to universities and other institutions, and

coordinates the science information activities of the federal government.

the office of national drug control policy, created in 1988 to raise the

profile of the U.S. government's fight against illegal drugs, coordinates

efforts of such agencies as the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration, the

Customs Service and the Coast Guard.

THE OFFICE OF PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT in 1979 assumed functions of the Civil

Service Commission, which was created in 1883 to establish a merit system

for government service and to eliminate politics from public appointments.

The agency holds competitive examinations across the country to select

qualified workers for over three million government posts. It also sponsors

training programs to increase the effectiveness of government employees.

the peace corps, founded in 1961, trains volunteers to serve in foreign

countries for two years. Peace Corps volunteers, now working in more than

60 nations, assist in agricultural-rural development, small business,

health, natural resources conservation and education.

THE SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION was established to protect investors

who buy stocks and bonds. Federal laws require companies that plan to raise

money by selling their own securities to file facts about their operations

with the commission. The commission has powers to prevent or punish fraud

in the sale of securities, and is authorized to regulate stock exchanges.

the small business administration lends money to small businesses, aids

victims of floods and other natural disasters, and helps secure contracts

for small businesses to supply goods and services to the federal

government.

THE UNITED STATES AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT (USAID) carries out

economic assistance programs designed to help the people in developing

countries develop their human and economic resources, increase their

productive capacities, and improve the quality of human life. The USAID

administrator also serves as director of the U.S. International Development

Cooperation Agency, which serves as the focal point for U.S. participation

in such organizations as the UN Children's Fund (UNICEF), the Organization

of American States (OAS) Technical Assistance Funds program, the World Bank

Group, and along with the Department of Agriculture, the Food for Peace

Program.

THE UNITED STATES ARMS CONTROL AND DISARMAMENT AGENCY is responsible for

U.S. participation in international negotiations on arms limitation and

disarmament. It represents the United States on international arms control

commissions and supports research on arms control and disarmament.

THE UNITED STATES INFORMATION AGENCY (USIA) seeks to promote better

understanding of the United States in other countries through the

dissemination abroad of information about the nation, its people, culture

and policies. USIA also administers a number of two-way educational and

cultural exchange programs, such as the Fulbright Program, with foreign

nations. It provides assistance to foreign press and television journalists

covering the United States. The Agency also advises the president and the

various departments of the government on foreign opinion concerning U.S.

policies and programs.

the united states postal service is operated by an autonomous public

corporation that replaced the Post Office Department in 1971. The Postal

Service is responsible for the collection, transportation and delivery of

the mails, and for the operation of thousands of local post offices across

the country. It also provides international mail service through the

Universal Postal Union and other agreements with foreign countries. An

independent Postal Rate Commission, also created in 1971, sets the rates

for different classes of mail.

THE LEGISLATIVE BRANCH

A BICAMERAL CONGRESS

Article I of the Constitution grants all legislative powers of the federal

government to a Congress divided into two chambers. a Senate and a House of

Representatives. The Senate, the smaller of the two, is composed of two

members for each state as provided by the Constitution, Membership in the

House is based on population and its size is therefore not specified in the

Constitution.

For more than 100 years after the adoption of the Constitution, senators

were not elected by direct vote of the people but were chosen by state

legislatures. Senators were looked on as representatives of their home

states. Their duty was to ensure that their states were treated equally in

all legislation. The 17th Amendment, adopted in 1913, provided for direct

election of the Senate.

The delegates to the Constitutional Convention reasoned that if two

separate groups—one representing state governments and one representing the

people—must both approve every proposed law, there would be little danger

of Congress passing laws hurriedly or carelessly. One house could always

check the other in the manner of the British Parliament. Passage of the

17th Amendment did not substantially alter this balance of power between

the two houses.

While there was intense debate in the Convention over the makeup and

powers of Congress, many delegates believed that the legislative branch

would be relatively unimportant. A few believed that the Congress would

concern itself largely with external affairs, leaving domestic matters to

state and local governments. These views were clearly wide of the mark. The

Congress has proved to be exceedingly active, with broad powers and

authority in all matters of national concern. While its strength vis-a-vis

the executive branch has waxed and waned at different periods of American

history, the Congress has never been impotent or a rubber stamp for

presidential decisions.

QUALIFICATIONS OF MEMBERS OF CONCRESS

The Constitution requires that U.S. senators must be at least 30 years of

age, citizens of the United States for at least nine years, and residents

of the states from which they are elected. Members of the House of

Representatives must be at least 25, citizens for seven years, and

residents of the states which send them to Congress. The states may set

additional requirements for election to Congress, but the Constitution

gives each house the power to determine the qualifications of its members.

Each state is entitled to two senators. Thus, Rhode Island, the smallest

state, with an area of about 3,156 square kilometers has the same

senatorial representation as Alaska, the biggest state, with an area of

some 1,524,640 square kilometers. Wyoming, with 490,000 persons in 1987,

has representation equal to that of California, with its 1987 population of

27,663,000.

The total number of members of the House of Representatives has been

determined by Congress. That number is then divided among the states

according to their populations. Regardless of its population, every state

is constitutionally guaranteed at least one member of the House of

Representatives. At present, six states—Alaska, Delaware, North Dakota,

South Dakota, Vermont and Wyoming—have only one representative. On the

other hand, six states have more than 20 representatives—California alone

has 45.

The Constitution provides for a national census each 10 years and a

redistribution of House seats according to population shifts. Under the

original constitutional provision, the number of representatives was to be

no more than one for each 30,000 citizens. There were 65 members in the

first House, and the number was increased to 106 after the first census.

Had the one-to-30,000 formula been adhered to permanently, population

growth in the United States would have brought the total number of

representatives to about 7,000. Instead, the formula has been adjusted over

the years, and today the House is composed of 435 members, roughly one for

each 530,000 persons in the United States.

State legislatures divide the states into congressional districts, which

must be substantially equal in population. Every two years, the voters of

each district choose a representative for Congress.

Senators are chosen in statewide elections held in even-numbered years.

The senatorial term is six years, and every two years one-third of the

Senate stands for election. Hence, two-thirds of the senators are always

persons with some legislative experience at the national level.

It is theoretically possible for the House to be composed entirely of

legislative novices. In practice, however, most members are reelected

several times and the House, like the Senate, can always count on a core

group of experienced legislators.

Since members of the House serve two-year terms, the life of a Congress

is considered to be two years. The 20th Amendment provides that the

Congress will meet in regular session each January 3, unless Congress fixes

a different date. The Congress remains in session until its members vote to

adjourn—usually late in the year. The president may call a special session

when he or she thinks it necessary. Sessions are held in the Capitol in

Washington, D.C.

POWERS OF THE HOUSE AND SENATE

Each house of Congress has the power to introduce legislation on any

subject except revenue bills, which must originate in the House of

Representatives. The large states may thus appear to have more influence

over the public purse than the small states. In practice, however, each

house can vote against legislation passed by the other house. The Senate

may disapprove a House revenue bill—or any bill, for that matter—or add

amendments which change its nature. In that event, a conference committee

made up of members from both houses must work out a compromise acceptable

to both sides before the bill becomes law.

The Senate also has certain powers especially reserved to that body,

including the authority to confirm presidential appointments of high

officials and ambassadors of the federal government as well as authority to

ratify all treaties by a two-thirds vote. Unfavorable action in either

instance nullifies executive action.

In the case of impeachment of federal officials, the House has the sole

right to bring charges of misconduct that can lead to an impeachment trial.

The Senate has the sole power to try impeachment cases and to find

officials guilty or not guilty. A finding of guilt results in the removal

of the federal official from public office.

The broad powers of the whole Congress are spelled out in the eighth

section of the first article of the Constitution:

— to levy and collect taxes;

— to borrow money for the public treasury;

— to make rules and regulations governing commerce among the states and

with foreign countries;

— to make uniform rules for the naturalization of foreign citizens;

— to coin money, state its value, and provide for the punishment of

counterfeiters;

— to set the standards for weights and measures;

— to establish bankruptcy laws for the country as a whole;

— to establish post offices and post roads;

— to issue patents and copyrights;

— to set up a system of federal courts;

— to punish piracy;

— to declare war;

— to raise and support armies;

— to provide for a navy;

— to call out the militia to enforce federal laws, suppress lawlessness or

repel invasions by foreign powers;

— to make all laws for the District of Columbia; and

— to make all laws necessary to enforce the Constitution.

A few of these powers are now outdated—the District of Columbia today is

largely self-governing—but they remain in effect. The 10th Amendment sets

definite limits on congressional authority, by providing that powers not

delegated to the national government are reserved to the states or to the

people. In addition, the Constitution specifically forbids certain acts by

Congress. It may not:

— suspend the writ of habeas corpus, unless necessary in time of rebellion

or invasion;

— pass laws which condemn persons for crimes or unlawful acts without a

trial;

— pass any law which retroactively makes a specific act a crime;

— levy direct taxes on citizens, except on the basis of a census already

taken;

— tax exports from any one state;

— give specially favorable treatment in commerce or taxation to the

seaports of any state or to the vessels using them; and

— authorize any titles of nobility.

LITTLE LEGISLATURES

A congressman once observed that "Congress is a collection of committees

that come together in a chamber periodically to approve one another's

actions. " That statement correctly identifies the standing and permanent

committees that are the nerve centers of the U.S. Congress. In a recent two-

year session of Congress, for example, members proposed a total of I], 602

bills in the House and 4,080 in the Senate. For each of these bills, the

committees responsible had to study, weigh arguments [or and against, hear

witnesses and debate changes, before the bills ever reached the House or

Senate floors. Out of almost ] 5,000 measures introduced, only 664—fewer

than six percent—were enacted into law.

The Constitution does not specifically call for congressional

committees. As the nation grew, however, so did the need for investigating

pending legislation more thoroughly. The committee system began in 1789,

when House members found themselves bogged down in endless discussions of

proposed new laws. The first committees dealt with Revolutionary War

claims, post roads and territories, and trade with other countries.

Throughout the years, committees have formed and disbanded in response to

political, social and economic changes. For example, there is no longer any

need for a Revolutionary War claims committee, but both houses of Congress

have a Veterans' Affairs committee.

Today, there are 22 standing committees in the House and 16 in the

Senate, plus four joint permanent committees with members from both houses:

Library of Congress, printing, taxation and economics. In addition, each

house can name special, or select, committees to study specific problems:

Because of an increase in workload, the standing committees have also

spawned some 300 subcommittees. Almost 25,000 persons help with research,

information-gathering and analyses of problems and programs in Congress.

Recently, during one week of hearings, committee and subcommittee members

discussed topics ranging from financing of television broadcasting to the

safety of nuclear plants to international commodity agreements.

And what do ail these "little legislatures" actually do? After all the

facts are gathered, the committee decides whether to report a new bill

favorably or with a recommendation that it be passed with amendments.

Sometimes, the bill will be set aside, or tabled, which effectively ends

its consideration. When bills are reported out of committee and passed by

the full House or Senate, however, another committee goes into action,

ironing out any differences between the House and Senate versions of the

same bill. This "conference committee, " consisting of members of both

houses, completes a bill to all members' satisfaction, then sends it to the

House and Senate floors for final discussion and a vote. If passed, the

bill goes to the president for his signature.

Congressional committees are vital because they do the nuts-and-bolts job

of weighing the proposals, hammering them into shape or killing them

completely. They continue to play a large part in the preparation and

consideration of laws that will help shape the United States in its third

century.

|STANDING, OR PERMANENT, COMMITTEES OF CONGRESS |

|HOUSE |SENATE |

|Agriculture |Agriculture, Nutrition and Forestry |

|Appropriations |Appropriations |

|Armed Services |Armed Services |

|Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs |Banking. Finance and Urban Affairs |

|Budget |Budget |

|District of Columbia |Commerce, Science and Transportation |

|Education and Labor |Energy and Natural Resources |

|Energy and Commerce |Environment and Public Works |

|Foreign Affairs |Finance |

|Government Operations |Foreign Relations |

|House Administration |Governmental Affairs |

|Interior and Insular Affairs |Judiciary |

|Judiciary |Labor and Human Resources |

|Merchant Marine and Fisheries |Rules and Administration |

|Post Office and Civil Service |Small Business |

|Public Works and Transportation |Veterans' Affairs |

|Rules | |

|Science, Space and Technology | |

|Small Business | |

|Standards of Official Conduct | |

|Veterans' Affairs | |

|Ways and Means | |

OFFICERS OF THE CONGRESS

The Constitution provides that the vice president shall be president of the

Senate. He or she has no vote, except in the case of a tie. The Senate

chooses a president pro tempore to preside when the vice president is

absent. The House of Representatives chooses its own presiding officer—the

speaker of the House. The speaker and the president pro tempore are always

members of the political party with the largest representation in each

house.

At the beginning of each new Congress, members of the political parties

select floor leaders and other officials to manage the flow of proposed

legislation. These officials, along with the presiding officers and

committee chairmen, exercise strong influence over the making of laws.

THE LAWMAK1NG PROCESS

One of the major characteristics of the Congress is the dominant role

committees play in its proceedings. Committees have assumed their present-

day importance by evolution, not by constitutional design, since the

Constitution makes no provision for their establishment.

At present the Senate has 16 standing (or permanent) committees: the

House of Representatives has 22. Each specializes in specific areas of

legislation: foreign affairs, defense, banking, agriculture, commerce,

appropriations and other fields. Every bill introduced in either house is

referred to a committee for study and recommendation. The committee may

approve, revise, kill or ignore any measure referred to it. It is nearly

impossible for a bill to reach the House or Senate floor without first

winning committee approval. In the House, a petition to discharge a bill

from a committee requires the signatures of 218 members; in the Senate, a

majority of all members is required. In practice, such discharge motions

only rarely receive the required support.

The majority party in each house controls the committee process.

Committee chairmen are selected by a caucus of party members or specially

designated groups of members. Minority parties are proportionally

represented on the committees according to their strength in each house.

Bills are introduced by a variety of methods. Some are drawn up by

standing committees; some by special committees created to deal with

specific legislative issues; and some may be suggested by the president or

other executive officers. Citizens and organizations outside the Congress

may suggest legislation to members, and individual members themselves may

initiate bills. After introduction, bills are sent to designated committees

which, in most cases, schedule a series of public hearings to permit

presentation of views by persons who support or oppose the legislation. The

hearing process, which can last several weeks or months, opens the

legislative process to public participation.

One virtue of the committee system is that it permits members of

Congress and their staffs to amass a considerable degree of expertise in

various legislative fields. In the early days of the republic, when the

population was small and the duties of the federal government narrowly

circumscribed, such expertise was not as important. Each congressman was a

generalist and dealt knowledgeably with all fields of interest. The

complexity of national life today calls for special knowledge, which means

that elected representatives often acquire expertise in one or two areas of

public policy.

When a committee has acted favorably on a bill, the proposed legislation

is then sent to the floor for open debate. In the Senate, the rules permit

virtually unlimited debate. In the House, because of the large number of

members, the Rules Committee usually sets limits. When debate is ended,

members vote either to approve the bill, defeat it, table it—which means

setting it aside and is tantamount to defeat—or return it to committee. A

bill passed by one house is sent to the other for action. If the bill is

amended by the second house, a conference committee composed of members of

both houses attempts to reconcile the differences.

Once passed by both houses, the bill is sent to the president, for

constitutionally the president must act on a bill for it to become law. The

president has the option of signing the bill—by which it becomes law—or

vetoing it. A bill vetoed by the president must be reapproved by a two-

thirds vote of both houses to become law.

The president may also refuse either to sign or veto a bill. In that

case, the bill becomes law without his signature 10 days after it reaches

him (not counting Sundays). The single exception to this rule is when

Congress adjourns after sending a bill to the president and before the 10-

day period has expired; his refusal to take any action then negates the

bill—a process known as the "pocket veto."

CONGRESSIONAL POWERS OF INVESTIGATION

One of the most important nonlegislative functions of the Congress is the

power to investigate. This power is usually delegated to committees—either

the standing committees, special committees set up for a specific purpose,

or joint committees composed of members of both houses. Investigations are

conducted to gather information on the need for future legislation, to test

the effectiveness of laws already passed, to inquire into the

qualifications and performance of members and officials of the other

branches, and on rare occasions, to lay the groundwork for impeachment

proceedings. Frequently, committees call on outside experts to assist in

conducting investigative hearings and to make detailed studies of issues.

There are important corollaries to the investigative power. One is the

power to publicize investigations and their results. Most committee

hearings are open to the public and are widely reported in the mass media.

Congressional investigations thus represent one important tool available to

lawmakers to inform the citizenry and arouse public interest in national

issues. Congressional committees also have the power to compel testimony

from unwilling witnesses, and to cite for contempt of Congress witnesses

who refuse to testify and for perjury those who give false testimony.

INFORMAL PRACTICES OF CONGRESS

In contrast to European parliamentary systems, the selection and behavior

of U.S. legislators has little to do with central party discipline. Each of

the major American political parties is basically a coalition of local and

state organizations which join together as a functioning national

party—Republican or Democratic—during the presidential elections at four-

year intervals. Thus the members of Congress owe their positions to their

local or state electorate, not to the national party leadership nor to

their congressional colleagues. As a result, the legislative behavior of

representatives and senators tends to be individualistic and idiosyncratic,

reflecting the great variety of electorates represented and the freedom

that comes from having built a loyal personal constituency.

Congress is thus a collegial and not a hierarchical body. Power does not

flow from the top down, as in a corporation, but in practically every

direction. There is only minimal centralized authority, since the power to

punish or reward is slight. Congressional policies are made by shifting

coalitions which may vary from issue to issue. Sometimes, where there are

conflicting pressures—from the White House and from important economic or

ethnic groups—legislators will use the rules of procedure to delay a

decision so as to avoid alienating an influential sector. A matter may be

postponed on the grounds that the relevant committee held insufficient

public hearings. Or Congress may direct an agency to prepare a detailed

report before an issue is considered. Or a measure may be put aside

("tabled") by either house, thus effectively defeating it without rendering

a judgment on its substance.

There are informal or unwritten norms of behavior that often determine

the assignments and influence of a particular member. "Insiders,"

representatives and senators who concentrate on their legislative duties,

may be more powerful within the halls of Congress than "outsiders," who

gain recognition by speaking out on national issues. Members are expected

to show courtesy toward their colleagues and to avoid personal attacks, no

matter how extreme or unpalatable their opponents' policies may be. Members

are also expected to specialize in a few policy areas rather than claim

expertise in the whole range of legislative concerns. Those who conform to

these informal rules are more likely to be appointed to prestigious

committees or at least to committees that affect the interests of a

significant portion of their constituents.

OVERSIGHT POWERS OF CONGRESS

Of the numerous techniques that Congress has adopted to influence the

executive branch, one of the most effective is the oversight function.

Congressional oversight prevents waste and fraud; protects civil liberties

and individual rights; ensures executive compliance with the law; gathers

information for making laws and educating the public: and evaluates

executive performance. It applies to Cabinet departments, executive

agencies, regulatory commissions and the presidency.

Congress' oversight function takes many forms:

—committee inquiries and hearings;

—formal consultations with and reports from the executive;

—Senate advice and consent for executive nominations and treaties;

—House impeachment proceedings and subsequent Senate trials;

—House and Senate proceedings under the 25th Amendment in the event that

the president becomes disabled, or the office of the vice president falls

vacant;

—informal meetings between legislators and executive officials;

—congressional membership on governmental commissions; and

—studies by congressional committees and support agencies such as the

Congressional Budget Office, the General Accounting Office or the Office of

Technology Assessment—all arms of Congress.

The oversight power of Congress has helped to force officials out of

office, change policies and provide new statutory controls over the

executive. In 1949, for example, probes by special Senate investigating

subcommittees revealed corruption among high officials in the Truman

administration. This resulted in the reorganization of certain agencies and

the formation of a special White House commission to study corruption in

the government.

The Senate Foreign Relations Committee's televised hearings in the late

1960s helped to mobilize opposition to the Vietnam War. Congress' 1973

Watergate investigation exposed White House officials who illegally used

their positions for political advantage, and the House Judiciary

Committee's impeachment proceedings against President Richard Nixon the

following year ended his presidency. Select committee inquiries in 1975 and

1976 identified serious abuses by intelligence agencies and initiated new

legislation to control certain intelligence activities.

In 1983, congressional inquiry into a proposal to consolidate border

inspection operations of the U.S. Customs Service and the U.S. Immigration

and Naturalization Service raised questions about the executive's authority

to make such a change without new legislation. In 1987, oversight efforts

disclosed statutory violations in the executive branch's secret arms sales

to Iran and the diversion of arms profits to anti-government forces in

Nicaragua, known as the contras. Congressional findings resulted in

proposed legislation to prevent similar occurrences.

Oversight power is an essential check in monitoring the presidency and

controlling public policy.

THE JUDICIAL BRANCH

THE FEDERAL COURT SYSTEM

The third branch of the federal government, the judiciary, consists of a

system of courts spread throughout the country, headed by the Supreme Court

of the United States.

A system of state courts existed before the Constitution was drafted.

There was considerable controversy among the delegates to the

Constitutional Convention as to whether a federal court system was needed,

and whether it should supplant the state courts. As in other matters under

debate, a compromise was reached in which the state courts were continued

while the Constitution mandated a federal judiciary with limited power.

Article III of the Constitution states the basis for the federal court

system:

The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme

Court, and such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time

ordain and establish.

With this guide, the first Congress divided the nation into districts

and created federal courts for each district. From that beginning has

evolved the present structure: the Supreme Court, 11 courts of appeals, 91

district courts, and three courts of special jurisdiction. Congress today

retains the power to create and abolish federal courts, as well as to

determine the number of judges in the federal judiciary system. It cannot,

however, abolish the Supreme Court.

The judicial power extends to cases arising under the Constitution; laws

and treaties of the United States; admiralty and maritime cases; cases

affecting ambassadors, ministers and consuls of foreign countries in the

United States; controversies in which the U.S. government is a party; and

controversies between states (or their citizens) and foreign nations (or

their citizens or subjects). The 11th Amendment removed from federal

jurisdiction cases in which citizens of one state were the plaintiffs and

the government of another state was the defendant. It did not disturb

federal jurisdiction in cases in which a state government is a plaintiff

and a citizen of another state the defendant.

The power of the federal courts extends both to civil actions for

damages and other redress, and to criminal cases arising under federal law.

Article III has resulted in a complex set of relationships between state

and federal courts. Ordinarily, federal courts do not hear cases arising

under the laws of individual states. However, some cases over which federal

courts have jurisdiction may also be heard and decided by state courts.

Both court systems thus have exclusive jurisdiction in some areas and

concurrent jurisdiction in others.

The Constitution safeguards judicial independence by providing that

federal judges shall hold office "during good behavior"—in practice, until

they die, retire or resign, although a judge who commits an offense while

in office may be impeached in the same way as the president or other

officials of the federal government. U.S. judges are appointed by the

president and confirmed by the Senate. Congress also determines the pay

scale of judges.

THE SUPREME COURT

The Supreme Court is the highest court of the United States, and the only

one specifically created by the Constitution. A decision of the Supreme

Court cannot be appealed to any other court. Congress has the power to fix

the number of judges sitting on the Court and, within limits, decide what

kind of cases it may hear, but it cannot change the powers given to the

Supreme Court by the Constitution itself.

The Constitution is silent on the qualifications for judges. There is no

requirement that judges be lawyers, although, in fact, all federal judges

and Supreme Court justices have been members of the bar.

Since the creation of the Supreme Court almost 200 years ago, there have

been slightly more than 100 justices. The original Court consisted of a

chief justice and five associate justices. For the next 80 years, the

number of justices varied until, in 1869, the complement was fixed at one

chief justice and eight associates. The chief justice is the executive

officer of the Court but, in deciding cases, has only one vote, as do the

associate justices.

The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction in only two kinds of cases:

those involving foreign dignitaries and those in which a state is a party.

All other cases reach the Court on appeal from lower courts.

Of the several thousand cases filed annually, the Court usually hears

only about 150. Most of the cases involve interpretation of the law or of

the intent of Congress in passing a piece of legislation. A significant

amount of the work of the Supreme Court, however, consists of determining

whether legislation or executive acts conform to the Constitution. This

power of judicial review is not specifically provided for by the

Constitution. Rather, it is doctrine inferred by the Court from its reading

of the Constitution, and forcefully stated in the landmark Marbury vs.

Madison case of 1803. In its decision in that case, the Court held that "a

legislative act contrary to the Constitution is not law," and further

observed that "it is emphatically the province and duty of the judicial

department to say what the law is." The doctrine has also been extended to

cover the activities of state and local governments.

Decisions of the Court need not be unanimous; a simple majority

prevails, provided at least six justices—the legal quorum—participate in

the decision. In split decisions, the Court usually issues a majority and a

minority—or dissenting—opinion, both of which may form the basis for future

decisions by the Court. Often justices will write separate concurring

opinions when they agree with a decision, but for reasons other than those

cited by the majority.

COURTS OF APPEALS AND DISTRICT COURTS

The second highest level of the federal judiciary is made up of the courts

of appeals, created in 1891 to facilitate the disposition of cases and ease

the burden on the Supreme Court. The United States is divided into 11

separate appeals regions, each served by a court of appeals with from three

to 15 sitting judges.

The courts of appeals review decisions of the district courts (trial

courts with federal jurisdiction) within their areas. They are also

empowered to review orders of the independent regulatory agencies, such as

the Federal Trade Commission, in cases where the internal review mechanisms

of the agencies have been exhausted and there still exists substantial

disagreement over legal points.

Below the courts of appeals are the district courts. The 50 states are

divided into 89 districts so that litigants may have a trial within easy

reach. Additionally, there is one in the District of Columbia and one in

the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, not a state of the union, but part of the

United States. From one to 27 judges sit in each of the district courts.

Depending on case load, a judge from one district may temp!) rarity sit in

another district. Congress fixes the boundaries of the districts according

to population, size and volume of work. Some of the smaller states

constitute a district by themselves. while the larger states, such as New

York, California and Texas, have four districts each.

Except in the District of Columbia, judges must be residents of the

district in which they permanently serve. District courts hold their

sessions at periodic intervals in different cities of the district.

Most cases and controversies heard by these courts involve federal

offenses such as misuse of the mails, theft of federal property, and

violations of pure food, banking and counterfeiting laws. These are the

only federal courts where grand juries indict those accused of crimes, and

juries decide the cases.

SPECIAL COURTS

In addition to the federal courts of general jurisdiction, it has been

necessary from time to time to set up courts for special purposes. These

are known as "legislative" courts because they were created by

congressional action. Judges in these courts, like their peers in other

federal courts, are appointed for life terms by the president, with Senate

approval.

Perhaps the most important of these special courts is the Court of

Claims, established in 1855 to render judgment on monetary claims against

the United States. Other special courts include the Customs Court, which

has exclusive jurisdiction over civil actions involving taxes or quotas on

imported goods, and the Court of Customs and Patent Appeals which hears

appellate motions from decisions of the Customs Court and the U.S. Patent

Office.

Conclusion

Although the Constitution has changed in many aspects since it was first

adopted, its basic principles remain the same now as in 1789:

— The three main branches of government are separate and distinct from one

another. The powers given to each are delicately balanced by the powers of

the other two. Each branch serves as a check on potential excesses of the

others.

— The Constitution, together with laws passed according to its provisions,

and treaties entered into by the president and approved by the Senate,

stands above all other laws, executive acts and regulations.

— All persons are equal before the law and are equally entitled to its

protection. All states are equal, and none can receive special treatment

from the federal government. Within

the limits of the Constitution, each state must recognize and respect the

laws of the others. State governments, like the federal government, must be

democratic in form, with final authority resting with the people.

— The people have the right to change their form of national government by

legal means defined in the Constitution itself.

Few Americans, however, would defend their country's record as perfect.

American democracy is in a constant state of evolution. As Americans review

their history, they recognize errors of performance and failures to act,

which have delayed the nation's progress. They know that more mistakes will

be made in the future.

Yet the U.S. government still represents the people, and is dedicated to

the preservation of liberty. The right to criticize the government

guarantees the right to change it when it strays from the essential

principles of the Constitution. So long as the preamble to the Constitution

is heeded, the republic will stand. In the words of Abraham Lincoln,

"government of the people, by the people, and for the people shall not

perish from the earth."

Contents:

Introduction__________________________

CONSTITUTION______________________

The Bill of Rights______________________

THE EXECUTIVE BRANCH___________

THE LEGISLATIVE BRANCH__________

THE JUDICIAL BRANCH______________

Conclusion____________________________

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