Lexicology of the English Language

poloneck turtleneck waistcoat

vest

Some words denoting people:

BE AE BE

AE

barrister, lawyer, staff /university/

faculty

post-graduate graduate chap, fellow guy

caretaker janitor constable

patrolman

shopassistant shopperson bobby cop

If we speak about cars there are also some differences:

BE AE BE

AE

boot trunk bumpers

fenders

a car, an auto, to hire a car to rent a

car

Differences in the organization of education lead to different terms. BE

«public school» is in fact a private school. It is a fee-paying school not

controlled by the local education authorities. AE «public school» is a

free local authority school. BE «elementary school» is AE «grade school» BE

«secondary school» is AE «high school». In BE « a pupil leaves a secondary

school», in AE «a student graduates from a high school» In BE you can

graduate from a university or college of education, graduating entails

getting a degree.

A British university student takes three years known as the first, the

second and the third years. An American student takes four years, known as

freshman, sophomore, junior and senior years. While studying a British

student takes a main and subsidiary subjects. An American student majors in

a subject and also takes electives. A British student specializes in one

main subject, with one subsidiary to get his honours degree. An American

student earns credits for successfully completing a number of courses in

studies, and has to reach the total of 36 credits to receive a degree.

Differences of spelling.

The reform in the English spelling for American English was introduced

by the famous American lexicographer Noah Webster who published his first

dictionary in 1806. Those of his proposals which were adopted in the

English spelling are as follows:

a) the delition of the letter «u» in words ending in «our», e.g. honor,

favor;

b) the delition of the second consonant in words with double consonants,

e.g. traveler, wagon,

c) the replacement of «re» by «er» in words of French origin, e.g.

theater, center,

d) the delition of unpronounced endings in words of Romanic origin, e.g.

catalog, program,

e) the replacement of «ce» by «se» in words of Romanic origin, e.g.

defense, offense,

d) delition of unpronounced endings in native words, e.g. tho, thro.

Differences in pronunciation

In American English we have r-coloured fully articulated vowels, in the

combinations: ar, er, ir, or, ur, our etc. In BE the sound / /

corresponds to the AE /^/, e.g. «not». In BE before fricatives and

combinations with fricatives «a» is pronounced as /a:/, in AE it is

pronounced / / e.g. class, dance, answer, fast etc.

There are some differences in the position of the stress:

BE AE BE

AE

add`ress adress la`boratory

`laboratory

re`cess `recess re`search

`research

in`quiry `inquiry ex`cess

`excess

Some words in BE and AE have different pronunciation, e.g.

BE AE BE

AE

/`fju:tail/ /`fju:t l/ /`dousail /

/dos l/

/kla:k/ /kl rk/ /`fig /

/figyer/

/ `le3 / / li:3 r/ /lef`ten nt/

/lu:tenant/

/ nai / /ni: r/ /shedju:l/

/skedyu:l/

But these differences in pronunciation do not prevent Englishmen and

American from communicating with each other easily and cannot serve as a

proof that British and American are different languages.

Words can be classified according to the period of their life in the

language. The number of new words in a language is always larger than the

number of words which come out of active usage. Accordingly we can have

archaisms, that is words which have come out of active usage, and

neologisms, that is words which have recently appeared in the language.

ARCHAISMS

Archaisms are words which are no longer used in everyday speech, which

have been ousted by their synonyms. Archaisms remain in the language, but

they are used as stylistic devices to express solemnity.

Most of these words are lexical archaisms and they are stylistic synonyms

of words which ousted them from the neutral style. Some of them are: steed

/horse/, slay /kill/, behold /see/, perchance /perhaps/, woe /sorrow/ etc.

Sometimes a lexical archaism begins a new life, getting a new meaning,

then the old meaning becomes a semantic archaism, e.g. «fair» in the

meaning «beautiful» is a semantic archaism, but in the meaning «blond» it

belongs to the neutral style.

Sometimes the root of the word remains and the affix is changed, then

the old affix is considered to be a morphemic archaism, e.g. «beautious»

/»ous» was substituted by «ful»/, «bepaint» / «be» was dropped/, «darksome»

/»some» was dropped/, «oft» / «en» was added/. etc.

NEOLOGISMS

At the present moment English is developing very swiftly and there is so

called «neology blowup». R. Berchfield who worked at compiling a four-

volume supplement to NED says that averagely 800 neologisms appear every

year in Modern English. It has also become a language-giver recently,

especially with the development of computerization.

New words, as a rule, appear in speech of an individual person who wants

to express his idea in some original way. This person is called

«originater». New lexical units are primarily used by university teachers,

newspaper reporters, by those who are connected with mass media.

Neologisms can develop in three main ways: a lexical unit existing in the

language can change its meaning to denote a new object or phenomenon. In

such cases we have semantic neologisms, e.g. the word «umbrella» developed

the meanings: «авиационное прикрытие», »политическое прикрытие». A new

lexical unit can develop in the language to denote an object or phenomenon

which already has some lexical unit to denote it. In such cases we have

transnomination, e.g. the word «slum» was first substituted by the word

«ghetto» then by the word-group «inner town». A new lexical unit can be

introduced to denote a new object or phenomenon. In this case we have «a

proper neologism», many of them are cases of new terminology.

Here we can point out several semantic groups when we analize the group

of neologisms connected with computerization, and here we can mention words

used:

a) to denote different types of computers, e.g. PC, super-computer, multi-

user, neurocomputer / analogue of a human brain/;

b) to denote parts of computers, e.g. hardware, software, monitor,

screen, data, vapourware / experimental samples of computers for

exhibition, not for production/;

c) to denote computer languages, e.g. BASIC, Algol FORTRAN etc;

d) to denote notions connected with work on computers, e.g. computerman,

computerization, computerize, to troubleshoot, to blitz out / to ruin

data in a computer’s memory/.

There are also different types of activities performed with the help of

computers, many of them are formed with the help of the morpheme «tele»,

e.g. to telework, to telecommute / to work at home having a computer which

is connected with the enterprise for which one works/. There are also such

words as telebanking, telemarketing, teleshopping / when you can perform

different operations with the help of your computer without leaving your

home, all operations are registered by the computer at your bank/,

videobank /computerized telephone which registers all information which is

received in your absence/.

In the sphere of lingusitics we have such neologisms as: machine

translation, interlingual / an artificial language for machine translation

into several languages / and many others.

In the sphere of biometrics we have computerized machines which can

recognize characteristic features of people seeking entrance : finger-print

scanner / finger prints/, biometric eye-scanner / blood-vessel arrangements

in eyes/, voice verification /voice patterns/. These are types of

biometric locks. Here we can also mention computerized cards with the help

of which we can open the door without a key.

In the sphere of medicine computors are also used and we have the

following neologisms: telemonitory unit / a telemonitory system for

treating patience at a distance/.

With the development of social activities neologisms appeared as well,

e.g. youthquake - волнения среди молодежи, pussy-footer - политик, идущий

на компромисы, Euromarket, Eurodollar, Europarliament, Europol etc.

In the modern English society there is a tendency to social

stratification, as a result there are neologisms in this sphere as well,

e.g. belonger - представитель среднего класса, приверженец консервативных

взглядов. To this group we can also refer abbreviations of the type

yuppie /young urban professional people/, such as: muppie, gruppie, rumpie,

bluppie etc. People belonging to the lowest layer of the society are

called survivers, a little bit more prosperous are called sustainers, and

those who try to prosper in life and imitate those, they want to belong

to, are called emulaters. Those who have prospered but are not belongers

are called achievers. All these layers of socety are called VAL /Value

and Lifestyles/ .

The rich belong also to jet set that is those who can afford to travel by

jet planes all over the world enjoying their life. Sometimes they are

called «jet plane travellers».

During Margaret Thatcher’s rule the abbreviation PLU appeared which means

«People like us» by which snobbistic circles of society call themselves.

Nowadays /since 1989/ PLU was substituted by «one of us».

There are a lot of immigrants now in UK , in connection with which

neologisms partial and non-partial were formed /имеющие право жить в

стране и его антоним/.

The word-group «welfare mother» was formed to denote a non-working single

mother living on benefit.

In connection with criminalization of towns in UK volantary groups of

assisting the police were formed where dwellers of the neighbourhood are

joined. These groups are called «neighbourhood watch», «home watch».

Criminals wear «stocking masks» not to be recognized.

The higher society has neologisms in their speech, such as : dial-a-meal,

dial-a-taxi.

In the language of teen-agers there are such words as : Drugs! /OK/,

sweat /бег на длинные дистанции/, task /home composition /, brunch etc.

With the development of professional jargons a lot of words ending in

«speak» appeared in English, e.g. artspeak, sportspeak, medspeak, education-

speak, video-speak, cable-speak etc.

There are different semantic groups of neologisms belonging to everyday

life:

a) food e.g. «starter»/ instead of «hors d’oevres»/, macrobiotics / raw

vegetables, crude rice/ , longlife milk, clingfilm, microwave stove,

consumer electronics, fridge-freezer, hamburgers /beef-, cheese-, fish-,

veg- /.

b) clothing, e.g. catsuit /one-piece clinging suit/, slimster , string /

miniscule bikini/, hipster / trousers or skirt with the belt on hips/,

completenik / a long sweater for trousers/, sweatnik /a long jacket/,

pants-skirt, bloomers / lady’s sports trousers/.

c) footwear e.g. winklepickers /shoes with long pointed toes/, thongs

/open sandals/, backsters /beech sandals with thick soles/.

d) bags, e.g. bumbag /a small bag worn on the waist/, sling bag /a bag

with a long belt/, maitre / a small bag for cosmetics/.

There are also such words as : dangledolly / a dolly-talisman dangling in

the car before the windscreen/, boot-sale /selling from the boot of the

car/, touch-tone /a telephone with press-button/.

Neologisms can be also classified according to the ways they are formed.

They are subdivided into : phonological neologisms, borrowings, semantic

neologisms and syntactical neologisms. Syntactical neologisms are divided

into morphological /word-building/ and phraseological /forming word-

groups/.

Phonological neologisms are formed by combining unique combinations of

sounds, they are called artificial, e.g. rah-rah /a short skirt which is

worn by girls during parades/, «yeck» /»yuck» which are interjections to

express repulsion produced the adjective yucky/ yecky. These are strong

neologisms.

Strong neologisms include also phonetic borrowings, such as «perestroika»

/Russian/, «solidarnosc» /Polish/, Berufsverbot / German /, dolce vita

/Italian/ etc.

Morphological and syntactical neologisms are usually built on patterns

existing in the language, therefore they do not belong to the group of

strong neologisms.

Among morphological neologisms there are a lot of compound words of

different types, such as «free-fall»-»резкое падение курса акций» appeared

in 1987 with the stock market crash in October 1987 /on the analogy with

free-fall of parachutists, which is the period between jumping and opening

the chute/. Here also belong: call-and-recall - вызов на диспансеризацию,

bioastronomy -search for life on other planets, rat-out - betrayal in

danger , zero-zero (double zero) - ban of longer and shorter range weapon,

x-rated /about films terribly vulgar and cruel/, Ameringlish /American

English/, tycoonography - a biography of a business tycoon.

There are also abbreviations of different types, such as resto, teen

/teenager/, dinky /dual income no kids yet/, ARC /AIDS-related condition,

infection with AIDS/, HIV / human immuno-deficiency virus/.

Quite a number of neologisms appear on the analogy with lexical units

existing in the language, e.g. snowmobile /automobile/, danceaholic

/alcoholic/, airtel /hotel/, cheeseburger /hamburger/, autocade /

cavalcade/.

There are many neologisms formed by means of affixation, such as:

decompress, to disimprove, overhoused, educationalist, slimster, folknik

etc. Phraseological neologisms can be subdivided into phraseological units

with transferred meanings, e.g. to buy into/ to become involved/, fudge

and dudge /avoidance of definite decisions/, and set non-idiomatic

expressions, e.g. electronic virus, Rubic’s cube, retail park, acid rain ,

boot trade etc.

Changes in pronunciation.

In Modern British English there is a tendency to change pronunciation of

some sounds and combinations of sounds due to the influence of American

English and some other factors. These changes are most noticeable in the

speech of teachers and students of the universities in the Southern part of

England /Oxford, Cambridge, London/.

There are the following changes in pronouncing vowels:

a) shortening of long vowels, especially at the end of the word and

before voiceless consonants, e.g. see, keep;

b) lengthening of short vowels before voiced consonants, e.g. big, good,

come, jam etc. In such adjectives which end in /d/ lengthening of the

vowel is observed all over England, e.g. bad, sad, glad, mad etc.

c) drawling of stressed syllables and clipping of unstressed syllables.

d) In unstressed syllables / / is pronounced instead of / i /, e.g. /b

`ko:z/, /`evid ns/ etc.

e) In the words consisting of three or more syllables there is a tendency

to have two main stresses,e.g. /`nes `s ri/, /`int `restin/.

f) The diphthong /ou/ is pronounced / u/,e.g. home /h um/, go /g u/.

g) the diphthong / u / is pronounced /o:/, e.g. sure /sho:/.

Vowels can also change under the influence of consonants:

a) after fricatives and consonants /n/ and /m/ /ju:/ is pronounced as

/u:/, e.g. resume, music, news, enthusiasm.

b) before fricatives and combinations of fricatives with consonants «a«

is pronounced as / /, e.g. dance, answer, class, fast.

The pronunciation of some consonants is also changed :

a) after a vowel /r/ is pronounced ,e.g. /ka:r/ , /ha:rt/.

b)There appears an intrusive /r/ in the combinations where after the

final vowel / / there is a vowel at the beginning of the next word, e.g.

the idea of, Asia and Europe/ on the analogy with word combinations there

is, there are/.

c) /p/ and /t/ are glotalized in the middle of the word,e.g. matter is

pronounced as /`m ? /, happy as /`h ? i/.

d) /s/ is used instead of /sh/ before /i/ in the structure of suffixes,

e.g. social /`sousi l/, negotiate / ni`gousi,eit/;

e) /l/ is vocalized at the end of the word, e.g. full/ ful/( close to

/v/ in sound).

f) /sh/ is voiced in the intervocal position in some geographical names,

e.g . «Asia», «Persia»;

g) combinations of sounds /dj/, /tj/ , /sj/ in such words as duke, tube,

issue have two variants of pronunciation: /d3u:k/ and /dju:k/, /chu:b/ and

/tju:b/, /`ishu:/ and /`isju:/;

g) pronunciation approaching spelling is being developed, e.g. often

/`oftn/, forehead / fo:`hed/ etc;

h) /t/ and/d/ at the end of words are not pronounced, e.g. «half past

five’ /`ha:f `pa:s`faiv/, «old man» /`oul `m n/.

LEXICOGRAPHY

The theory and practice of compiling dictionaries is called

lexicography. The history of compiling dictionaries for English comes as

far back as the Old English period, where we can find glosses of religious

books / interlinear translations from Latin into English/. Regular

bilingual dictionaries began to appear in

the 15-th century /Anglo-Latin, Anglo-French , Anglo-German/.

The first unilingual dictionary explaining difficult words appeared in

1604, the author was Robert Cawdry, a schoolmaster. He compiled his

dictionary for schoolchildren. In 1721 an English scientist and writer

Nathan Bailey published the first etymological dictionary which explained

the origin of English words. It was the first scientific dictionary, it was

compiled for philologists.

In 1775 an English scientist compiled a famous explanatory dictionary.

Its author was Samuel Johnson. Every word in his dictionary was illustrated

by examples from English literature, the meanings of words were clear from

the contexts in which they were used.. The dictionary was a great success

and it influenced the development of lexicography in all countries. The

dictionary influenced normalization of the English vocabulary. But at

the same time it helped to preserve the English spelling in its

conservative form.

In 1858 one of the members of the English philological society Dr.

Trench raised the question of compiling a dictionary including all the

words existing in the language. The

philological society adopted the decision to compile the dictionary

and the work started. More than a thousand people took part in collecting

examples, and 26 years later in 1884 the first volume was published. It

contained words beginning with «A» and «B». The last volume was published

in 1928 that is 70 years after the decision to compile it was adopted. The

dictionary was called NED and contained 12 volumes.

In 1933 the dictionary was republished under the title «The Oxford

English Dictionary», because the work on the dictionary was conducted in

Oxford. This dictionary contained 13 volumes. As the dictionary was very

large and terribly expensive scientists continued their work and compiled

shorter editions of the dictionary: «A Shorter Oxford Dictionary»

consisting of two volumes. It had the same number of entries, but far less

examples from literature. They also compiled «A Concise Oxford Dictionary»

consisting of one volume and including only modern words and no examples

from literature.

The American lexicography began to develop much later, at the end of the

18-th century. The most famous American English dictionary was compiled by

Noah Webster. He was an active stateman and public man and he published his

first dictionary in 1806. He went on with his work on the dictionary and in

1828 he published a two-volume dictionary. He tried to simplify the English

spelling and transcription. He introduced the alphabetical system of

transcription where he used letters and combinations of letters instead of

transcription signs. He denoted vowels in closed syllables by the

corresponding vowels, e.g. / a/, /e/, / i/, / o/, /u/. He denoted vowels

in the open syllable by the same letters, but with a dash above them,e.g.

/ a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, /u/. He denoted vowels in the position before /r/ as

the same letters with two dots above them, e.g. / a/, /o/ and by the l

etter «e» with two dots above it for the combinations «er», «ir», «ur»

because they are pronounced identically. The same tendency is preserved

for other sounds : /u:/ is denoted by /oo/, /y/ is used for the sound /j/

etc.

Classification of dictionaries

All dictionaries are divided into linguistic and encyclopedic

dictionaries. Encyclopedic dictionaries describe different objects,

phenomena, people and give some data about them. Linguistic dictionaries

describe vocabulary units, their semantic structure, their origin, their

usage. Words are usually given in the alphabetical order.

Linguistic dictionaries are divided into general and specialized . To

general dictionries two most widely used dictionaries belong: explanatory

and translation dictionaries. Specialized dictionaries include

dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, collocations, word-frequency,

neologisms, slang, pronouncing, etymological, phraseological and others.

All types of dictionaries can be unilingual ( excepting translation ones)

if the explanation is given in the same language, bilingual if the

explanation is given in another language and also they can be polilingual.

There are a lot of explanatory dictionaries (NED, SOD, COD, NID, N.G.

Wyld’s «Universal Dictionary» and others). In explanatory dictionaries the

entry consists of the spelling, transcription, grammatical forms, meanings,

examples, phraseology. Pronunciation is given either by means of the

International Transcription System or in British Phonetic Notation which is

different in each large dictionary, e.g. /o:/ can be indicated as / aw/,

/or/, /oh/, /o/. etc.

Translation dictionaries give words and their equivalents in the other

language. There are English-Russian dictionaries by I.R. Galperin, by

Y.Apresyan and others. Among general dictionaries we can also mention

Learner’s dictionaries. They began to appear in the second half of the 20-

th century. The most famous is «The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary» by A.S.

Hornby. It is a unilingual dictionary based on COD, for advanced foreign

learners and language teachers. It gives data about grammatical and lexical

valency of words. Specialized dictionaries of synonyms are also widely

used, one of them is «A Dictionary of English Synonyms and Synonymous

Expressions» by R.Soule. Another famous one is «Webster’s Dictionary of

Synonyms». These are unilingual dictionaries. The best known bilingual

dictionary of synonyms is «English Synonyms» compiled by Y. Apresyan.

In 1981 «The Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English» was compiled, where

words are given in 14 semantic groups of everyday nature. Each word is

defined in detail, its usage is explained and illustrated, synonyms,

antonyms are presented also. It describes 15000 items, and can be referred

to dictionaries of synonyms and to explanatory dictionaries.

Phraseological dictionaries describe idioms and colloquial phrases,

proverbs. Some of them have examples from literature. Some lexicographers

include not only word-groups but also anomalies among words. In «The Oxford

Dicionary of English Proverbs» each proverb is illustrated by a lot of

examples, there are stylistic references as well. The dictionary by

Vizetelli gives definitions and illustrations, but different meanings of

polisemantic units are not given. The most famous bilingual dictionary of

phraseology was compiled by A.V. Koonin. It is one of the best

phraseological dictionaries.

Etymological dictionaries trace present-day words to the oldest forms of

these words and forms of these words in other languages. One of the best

etymological dictionaries was compiled by W. Skeat.

Pronouncing dictionaries record only pronunciation. The most famous is D.

Jones’ s «Pronouncing Dictionary».

Dictionaries of neologisms are : a four-volume «Supplement to NED» by

Burchfield, «The Longman Register of New Words»/1990/, «Bloomsury

Dictionary of New Words» /1996/.

SEMINARS

Seminar 1

Language units.

The smallest language unit.

The function of a root morpheme.

The main function of suffixes.

The secondary function of suffixes.

The main function of prefixes.

The secondary function of prefixes.

Splinters and their formation in English.

The difference between affixes and splinters.

Structural types of words in English.

The stem of a word and the difference beween a simple word, a stem and a

root.

The difference between a block compound and a nominal benomial.

The difference between a word and a phraseological unit.

The similarity between a word and a phraseological unit.

Analyze the following lexical units according to their structure. Point

out the function of morphemes. Speak about bound morphemes and free

morphemes. Point out allomorphs in analyzed words:

accompany unsystematic forget-me-not

computerise expressionless reservation

de-restrict superprivileged moisture

lengthen clannish pleasure

beautify workaholic reconstruction

beflower inwardly counterculture

specialise moneywise three-cornered

round table Green Berets to sandwich in

Seminar 2.

Affixation.

Classification of suffixes according to the part of speech they form.

Classification of suffixes according to the stem they are added to.

Classification of suffixes according to their meaning.

Classification of suffixes according to their productivity.

Classification of suffixes according to their origin.

Classification of prefixes according to their meaning.

Classification of prefixes according to their origin.

Classification of prefixes according to their productivity.

Analyze the following derived words, point out suffixes and prefixes and

classify them from different points of view:

to embed nourishment unsystematic

to encourage inwardly to accompany

translatorese dispensable clannishness

to de-restrict workaholic jet-wise

reconstruction to overreach thouroughly

afterthought foundation childishness

transgressor to re-write completenik

gangsterdom pleasure concentration

refusenik counter-culture brinkmanship

allusion self-criticism to

computerise

slimster reservation

translation

Seminar 3

Compound words.

Characteristic features of compound words in different languages.

Characteristic features of English compounds.

Classification of compound words according to their structure.

Classification of compound words according to the joining element.

Classification of compound words according to the parts of speech.

Classification of compound words according to the semantic relations

between the components.

Ways of forming compound words.

Analyze the following compound words:

note-book speedometer son-in-law

to job-hop brain-gain video-corder

fair-haired forget-me-not Anglo-Russian

teach-in back-grounder biblio-klept

theatre-goer well-dressed bio-engineer

to book-hunt mini-term to baby-sit

blood-thirsty good-for-nothing throw-away

do-gooder skin-head kleptomania

sportsman para-trooper airbus

bus-napper cease-fire three-

cornered

tip-top brain-drain bread-and-

butter

Compare the strucure of the following words:

demagougery tablewards heliport

tobbacoless money-wise non-formal

booketeria go-go motel

counter-clockwise to frontpage productivity

giver-away newly-created nobody

Seminar 4.

Conversion.

Conversion as a way of wordbuilding.

Different points of view on the nature of conversion.

Semantic groups of verbs which can be converted from nouns.

The meanings of verbs converted from adjectives.

Semantic groups of nouns which can be converted from verbs.

Substantivised adjectives.

Characteristic features of combinations of the type «stone wall».

Semantic groups of combinations of this type.

Analyze the following lexical units:

to eye a find to

slim

a grown-up to airmail steel helmet

London season resit sleep

a flirt a read

handout

to weekend a build-up supersonics

a non-formal to wireless to submarine

to blue-pencil to blind - the blind - blinds

distrust a jerk to

radio

news have-nots the

English

to co-author to water to winter

a sit-down mother-in-law morning star

undesirables a walk a find

dislike log cabin finals

Seminar 5.

Shortenings and abbreviations.

Lexical and graphical abbreviations,the main differences between them.

Types of graphical abbreviations.

Types of initias, peculiarities of their pronunciation.

Lexical shortenings of words, their reference to styles.

Compound-shortened words, their structural types.

Analyze the following lexical units:

aggro /aggression/ Algol / algorythmic language/

apex /eipeks/ - advanced purchased excursion/ payment for an excursion

ninety days before the time of excursion/

A-day /announcement Day - day of announcing war/

AID / artifitial insemination by a donor/

AIDS / acquired immunity deficiency syndrome/

Ala / Alabama/ a.s.a.p. /as soon as possible/

bar-B-Q ,barb /barbecue/ to baby-sit / baby-sitter/

A-level /advanced level/ BC /birth certificate/

burger /hamberger/ Camford, Oxbridge

CALL /computer-assisted language learning/

CAT /computer-assisted training/

cauli / cauliflower/ COD / cash on delivery/

COBOL / k ubol/ /common business-oriented language/

co- ed comp /komp, k mp/ /accompaniment/

DINKY /double income ,no kids yet/

E-Day /entrance day //Common Market/ expo/exposition/

edbiz/ educational business/ el-hi / elementary and high

schools/, ex lib/ex libris/ /from the library of/

etc Euratom fax /facsimile/

G-7 / group of seven: GB, Germany, Japan, France, Canada, Italy, Spain/.

FORTRAN /formula translation/.

Seminar 6.

Phraseological units.

Ways of forming phraseological units.

Semantic classification of phraseological units.

Structural classification of phraseological units.

Syntactical classification of phraseological units.

Analyze the following phraseological units according to their meaning,

structure, syntactical function and the way they are formed:

When pigs fly /never/. To leap into marriage.

To be a whipping boy. To be behind scenes.

Girl Friday /a man’s assistant/. Fire in the belly.

Man Friday /a true friend/. A dear John.

To be on the beam. Game, set and match.

Country and western. To jump out of one’s skin.

As smart as paint. It’s my cup of tea.

Robin Crusoe and Friday / seats at a theatre divided by a passage/.

Fortune favours fools. To be in the dog house.

The green power. Green Berets.

Culture vulture. To get off one’s back.

To make headlines. On the nose.

With a bump. To have a short fuse.

To vote with one’s feet. Nuts and bolts.

Blackboard jungle. The sky is the limit.

Cash and carry. To nose out.

To sandwich in. Berlin wall.

A close mouth catches no flies. To speak BBB.

To sound like a computer. As dull as lead.

Last but not least. On the stroke of.

Seminar 7.

Phraseological units.

Students choose ten phraseological units from Koonin’s dictionary of

phraseological units and a unilingual dictionary of idioms and analyze them

in the written form. During the seminar they analyze their phrasological

units chosen from dictionaries at the blackboard.

Seminar 8.

Borrowings.

Classification of borrowings according to the language from which they

were borrowed:

Latin borrowings.

French borrowings.

Italian borrowings.

Scandinavian borrowings.

German borrowings.

Russian borrowings.

Classification of borrowings according to the borrowed aspect: phonetic

borrowings, semantic borrowings, translation loans, morphemeic borrowings,

hybrids.

Classification of borrowings according to the degree of assimilation:

fully assimilated borrowings, partly assimilated borrowings, barbarisms.

Borrowings partly assimilated semantically, grammatically, phonetically and

graphically.

Analyze the following borrowings:

school represent sky-blue

degree rhythm immobility

chandelier the Zoo vase

mot /mou/ hybrid bouffant

illuminate keenly communicative

possessiveness to reproach command

moustache gifted boutique

skipper cache-pot well-scrubbed

nouveau riche emphatic mysteriously

dactyl Nicholas group

to possess chenile psychological

garage guarantee contempt

trait/trei/ triumph stomach

sympathy cynical Philipp

schoolboy Christianity paralyzed

system hotel cyclic

diphtheria kerchief dark-skinned.

Seminar 9

Semaciology.

Word and notion.

Lexical meaning and notion.

Polysemy.

Homonyms.

Synonyms.

Antonyms.

Classifications of homonyms when applied to analysis.

Classifications of antonyms when applied to analysis.

Analyze the following lexical units applying the above mentioned

classifications of homonyms and antonyms:

present - absent, present - to present

like , to like - to dislike - dislike

sympathy - antipathy

progress - to progress, regress - to regress

success - failure, successful- unsuccessful

left - left/to leave/, right adj. - right n.

inflexible - flexible

unsafe - safe adj. - safe n.

fair n. - fair adj. unfair, foul

piece - peace

dark-haired - fair-haired

a row - a row /rou/ - /rau/

a fan - a fan

superiority - inferiority

different - similar, indifferent, alike, difference - similarity

meaningful - meaningless

after prep.- before -before adv., before conj.

to gossip - a gossip

shapeless - shapy

air - to air - air

fearless - fearful

bright - dim, dull, sad

to fasten - to unfasten

something - nothing

eldest - oldest -youngest

to husband - husband

obscure - to obscure

unaccustomed - accustomed

to exclude - to include

to conceal -to reveal

too - too- two

somewhere - nowhere

a drawer - a drawer

with - without

Seminar 10.

Neology.

Neology «blowup» and the work of R.Berchfield.

Semantic neologisms, transnomination and proper neologisms.

Semantic groups of neologisms connected with computerization.

Social stratification and neologisms.

Semantic groups of neologisms referring to everyday life.

Phonological neologisms and borrowings as strong neologisms.

Morphological and syntactical neologisms.

Changes in pronunciation.

Analyze the following neologisms from the point of view of neology theory

and also from the point of view of their morphemic structure and the way

they were formed :

to clip-clip AIDS coup

sound barrier to Vice-Preside boutique

to re-familiarize tourmobile sevenish

to de-dramatize non-formals to baby-sit

to scrimp and save fireside chat hide-away

coin-in-the-slot cashless society memo

We shall overcome. to dish old wine in new bottles

to-ing and fro-ing multinationals the Commons

hyperacidity religiosity D-Day

face-to-face/tuition/ femme-fatalish to the wingtips

to river singer-songwriter beatnik

communication gap laundered money cheeseburger

Don’t change horses. to put a freeze on micro-surgical

SA out-doorsy medicare

Cold War self-exile public-

schooly

brain-drainer movers and shakers Euroyuppie

Seminar 11.

Control work on the analysis of language units. Each student gets

six language units of different types / simple words, derived words,

compound words, phraseological units, combinations of the type «stone

wall», borrowings, abbreviations, antonyms, homonyms, neologisms ,

abbreviations/ and is to analize them from all points of view which were

studied during the seminars.

Seminar 12.

Lexicography.

Analysis of the control paper.

Historical development of British lexicography.

Historical development of American lexicography.

Classification of dictionaries.

Student reports on dictionaries they use in their work.

SOURCES

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Canon G. Historical Changes and English Wordformation: New

Vocabulary items. N.Y., 1986.

Ginzburg R.S. et al. A Course in Modern English Lexicology.

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Jespersen ,Otto. Growth and Structure of the English

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Halliday M.A.K. Language as Social Semiotics. Social

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Howard Ph. New words for Old. Lnd., 1980.

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Sheard, John. The Words we Use. N.Y..,1954.

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