Конверсионное словообразование прилагательных цветообозначения. Методика преподавния в нач.классах

These words, however, are not very common (except out and thwart).

Type hail verb fr hail interjection (verbs derived

from minor particles).

Derivation from exclamation and interjection (most of there

onomatopoeias) is more frequent. It will, however, be noted that many of

these conversions have undergone functional and formal changes only without

acquiring a well - grounded lexical existence, their meaning merely being

«say..., utter the sound...». Exs are hail 1200, nay «say nay, refuse»

13.., mum 1399, obs. Hosht «reduce to silence» etc., whoo (16th century),

humph (17th century), encore, dee-hup (to a horse), pshaw, halloa, yaw

(speak affectedly», hurrah (18th century), tally-ho (fox-hunting term),

boo, yes, heigh-ho «sigh», bravo, tut, bow-wow, haw-haw, boo-hoo «weep

noisily» etc. (Biese/4/ also Jespersen/7/).

The meaning ‘say...’ may occur with other words also when they are

used as exclamation or interjections, as with iffing (other verb forms are

not recorded), hence ‘order hence’ (obs., 1580). And it may be reckoned

here all the words of the type sir ‘call sir’.

From about 1600 on, geminated forms also occur as verbs. A few have

been mentioned in the foregoing paragraph; others are snip-snap

(1593),dingle-dangle, ding-dong, pit-pat (17th century), pitter-patter,

wiggle-waggle (18th century), criss-cross, rap-tap, wig-wag (19th century)

etc.

The limits of verbal derivation.

Derivation from suffixed nouns is uncommon. Biese’s/4/ treatment of

the subject suffers from a lack of discrimination. He has about 600

examples of substantives and adjectives; but the ‘suffixes’ are mere

terminations. Words such herring, pudding, nothing, worship are not

derivatives. The terminations -ace, -ice, -ogue, -y (as in enemy) have

never had any derivative force.

Theoretically it would seem that the case of a suffixal composite such

as boyhood is not different from that of a fill compound such as spotlight.

But obviously the fact that suffixes are categorizes generally prevents

suffixal derivatives from becoming the determinants of pseudo-compound

verbs. There are very few that are in common use, such as waitress (rec.),

package (rec., chiefly in form packaged, packaging), manifold OE

(obsolescent today), forward 1596, referee 1889, such adjectives as dirty,

muddy. Many more are recorded in OED (as countess, patroness, squiress,

traitress ‘play the...’, fellowship, kingdom a.o.).

Another reason seems to be still more important. Many of the nominal

suffixes derive substantives from verbs., and it would be contrary to

reason to form such verbs as arrival, guidance, improvement, organization

when arrive, guide, improve, organize exist. Similar consideration apply to

deadjectival derivatives like freedom or idleness. The verb disrupture is

recorded in OED (though only in participial forms) but it is not common.

Reverence is used as a verb, but it is much older (13.., 1290) than the

verb revere (1661). It should also be noted that the alternation

revere/reverence shows characteristics of vowel change and stress which are

irregular with derivation by means of -ance, -ence. For same reason

reference is not a regular derivative from refer, which facilitated the

coinage reference ‘provide with references’ etc. 1884.

There are no verbal derivatives from prefixed words either. The verb

unfit ‘make unfit’ 1611 is isolated.

Type look substantive fr. look verb (deverbal

substantives).

Deverbal substantives are much less numerous than denominal verbs. The

frequency-relation between the two types has been approximately the same in

all periods of the language. An exception is to be made for the second half

of the 13th century «when the absolute number of conversion-substantives is

larger that of the verbs formed from substantives» (Biese/4/).

Form the 13th century are recorded (unless otherwise mentioned in

parentheses, the resp. Verbs are OE) dread (1175), have, look, steal, weep,

call (1225), crack, ‘noise’, dwell, hide, make, mislike, mourn, show, spit,

‘spittle’, stint, wrest ‘act of twisting’ a.o.

From the later ME period are recorded (indications in parentheses

refer to the respective verbs) fall (OE), feel (OE), keep (OE), lift (ME),

move (ME), pinch (ME), put (ME), run (OE), snatch (ME), sob (ME), walk

(OE), wash (OE).

From the 16th century date craze (ME), gloom (ME), launch (ME), push

(ME), rave (ME), say (OE), scream (ME), anub (ME), swim (OE), wave (OE);

from the 17th century contest (1579), converse (ME), grin (OE), laugh (OE),

produce (1499), sneeze (1493), take (ME), yawn (OE); from the 18th century

finish (ME), hand (OE), pry (ME), ride (OE), sit (OE). From the 19th

century fix (ME), meet (OE), shampoo (1762), spill (OE).

As for the meaning of deverbal substantive, the majority denote the

act or rather a specific instance of what the verbal idea expresses quote,

contest, fall, fix, knock, lift etc. This has been so from the beginning

(Hertrampf and Biese/4/). «The abstract nouns, including nouns of action,

are not only the most common type of conversion-substantives; they are also

those of the greatest importance during the early periods of the

development of conversions» (Biese/4/). «The conversion-substantive used in

a personal or concrete sense are, especially in the earlier stages, of

comparatively slight importance» (ib.).

Concrete senses show mince ‘minced meat’, produce ‘product’, rattle

‘instrument’, sprout ‘branch’, shoot ‘branch’, shear ‘shorn animal’, sink

‘sewer’, clip ‘instrument’, cut ‘passage, opening’, spit ‘spittle’, stride

‘one of a flight of steps’.

Sbs denoting the result of the verbal action are catch, take, win

‘victory’, cut ‘provision’, find, melt ‘melded substance’, snatch ‘excerpt

from a song’ e.c.

Place-denoting are fold, bend, slip, wush ‘sandbank’, dump etc.

Sbs denoting the impersonal agent are draw ‘attraction’, catch (of a

gate, a catching question etc.), sting ‘animal organ’, tread ‘part of the

sole that touches the ground’, do, take-in, all ‘tricky contrivance’, wipe

‘handkerchief’ sl etc.

There are also number of substantives denoting a person. OE knew the

type boda ‘bode’ (corresponding to L scriba, OHG sprecho) which in ME was

replaced by the type hunter. Several words survived, however, as bode, help

(OE help), hint (the last quotation in OED is from 1807), and they are

occasional ME formations, as ally 1380 (if it is not rather French allie);

but could be apprehended as formed after the type. Obs. Cut (a term of

abuse) 1490 does not seem to have any connection with the verb cut, and

scold ‘scolding woman’ 1200 is doubtful, the verb is first quoted 1377.

The word wright, which now occurs only as a second-word of cpds (cart-

wright etc.) is no longer apprehended as an agent noun (belonging to wolk).

Otherwise all deverbal substantives denoting a personal agent are of Modern

English origin, 16th century or more recent. The type probably came into

existence under the influence of the types pickpocket and runabout. Exs are

romp ‘child or woman fond of romping’ 1706, flirt 1732, crack ‘cracksman’

1749 (thieves’ sl), bore ‘tiresome p.’ 1812, sweep ‘chimney sweeper’ 1812,

coach ‘tutor, trainer’ 1848 (misleadingly classed in OED, as if from

substantive coach), discard ‘discarded person’. The great number of

depreciative terms is striking.

For the sake of convenience it is repeated here the examples of such

personal deverbal substantives as form the second-words of cpds: upstart

1555, by-blow 1595=obs. By-slip 1670 ‘bastard’, chimney-sweep 1614, money-

grub 1768, shoeblack and bootbleck 1778, new-come ‘new arrival’ 1577,

bellhop, carhop rec.

The formation if deverbal substantives may be considered from the

angle of syntactical grouping. No doubt there are different frequency-rates

for a word according to the position which it has in a sentence. Biese/4/

has devoted a chapter to the question and has established various types of

grouping which have influenced the growth of the type. It can be seen that

deverbal substantives frequently occur in prepositional groups (to be in

the know), that type are often the object of give, make, have, take (less

so of other verbs), that only 11% of the examples show the deverbal

substantives as subject of the sentence and that they are frequently by

adjuncts. The most important patterns are ‘(be) in the know’ and ‘(have) a

look’. Exs of the first type are phrases such as in the long run, upon the

go, with a thrust of his hair, after this sit, for a tell, for the kill,

for the draw, of English make, at a qulp, etc.

As for the t. ‘(have) a look’, «the use of phrasal verbs with

conversion-substantives may be said to be a very marked feature during all

periods from early ME up to the present time. As shown by these quotations,

the origins of this use may be said to go back as far as the OE period»

(Biese/4/). Exs are; have a wash, a smoke, a swim, a chat etc., give a

laugh, a cry, a break, a toss, a whistle, the chick, the go-by etc., take a

ride, a walk, a swim, a read, the lead etc., make a move, a dive, a bolt, a

bow etc. etc.

It will be interesting to compare zero-derivatives with the -ing

substantives. Historical speaking there is no longer a competition so far

as the formation of common substantives is concerned. The number of new-

formed -ing substantives has been steadily decreasing since the beginning

of the MoE period. According to Biese/4/ the figures for newly introduced

-ing substantives, as compared with zero-derivatives of the same verbs, are

as follows: 13th century = 62, 14th = 80, 15th = 19, 16th =12, 17th century

=5, 18th century =2, 19th century =0. Biese/4/ has obviously considered the

rise of new forms only, but the semantic development of -ing substantives.

Otherwise his figures would have been different. Any verb may derive an

-ing substantive which can take the definite article. The -ing then

invariably denotes the action of the verb: the smoking of the gentlemen

disturbed me. The zero-derivative, as compared with the ing, never denotes

the action but gives the verbal ideal in a nominalized form, i.e. the

notional content of the verbal idea (with the secondary implication of the

idea ‘act’): the gentlemen withdrew for a smoke. «In their use with phrasal

verbs -ing forms have become obsolete, whereas there is an ever increasing

number of conversion substantives used in conjunction with verbs like make,

take etc....»(Biese/4/). On the other hand, common substantives in ing are

now chiefly denominal, denoting something concrete, chiefly material which

eliminates ing as a rival for zero-derivatives. According to Biese/4/ this

distinction is already visible in the early stages of conversion. Biese/4/

points out that a prepositional substantive following a substantive is

almost always a ‘genitivus subjectivus’ (the grind of wheels), whereas the

same type of group following an -ing substantive is most often a

‘genitivens objectivus’ which is certainly an observation to the point, as

it shows the verbal character of the -ing substantives as compared with the

more nominal character of zero-derivatives.

A few instances of semantically differentiated derivatives are

bother/bothering, build/building, proceeds/proceedings, meet/meeting,

set/setting, turn/turning, bend/bending, find/finding, sit/sitting,

cut/cutting, feel/feeling, paint/painting.

Sometimes deverbal substantives are only idiomatic in the plural: it

divers me the creeps (the jumps), turn on the weeps A sl, have the prowls A

sl, the bends ‘caisson disease’, for keeps ‘for good’.

An apparent exception are derivatives from expressive verbs in -er

(type clatter) and -le (type sparkle) which are pretty numerous (Biese/4/),

but in fact most of these verbs are not derivatives in the way verbs in

-ize or -ify are, because few simple verbs exist alongside of the

composites. These words are better described as composites of expressive

elements, so the suffixes are not categorizes.

Derivation from prefixed verbs is restricted to composites with the

prefixes dis-, mis-, inter-, and re- (see the respective prefixes). With

other prefixes, there have only been attempts at nominal derivation.

Biese/4/ has befall, beget, begin, behave, belay, belove, beseech, bespeak,

bestow, betide, betrust as substantives. But they were all short-lived and

rare. With the exception of belay 1908, a technical term, none seems to be

in use today.

Biese/4/ has established a so-called detain- type, i.e. substantives

derived from what he considers to be prefixed verbs. It do not seen the

point of this distinction as one could analyze very few of his 450 words or

so. The majority are unit words.

Zero-derivation and stress.

It shall now be made a few remarks about such types as have not been

treated in this chapter. The stressing tendencies differ according to

whether the basis is a unit word or a composite, also according to whether

derivation is made from a noun or a verb.

Nominal derivation from composite verbs involves shift of stress.

Examples are the types runaway / blackout, overthrow, interchange, misfit,

reprint which are derived from actual or possible verbal composites with

the stress pattern --. The process has not yet come to an end which will

explain that the OED, Webster and others very often give stress indications

which no longer tally with the speech habits of the majority. Many cbs of

the blackout type and all the substantives of the types misfit and reprint

are stressed like the verbs resp. Verbal phrases in OED.

Of prefixal types only verbs with inter-, mis- and re- have developed

stress-distinguished substantives. No similar pairs exist for neg. un- (no

verbal type exists, anyway), reversative un-, be-, de- (be- and de- are

only deverbal).

Verbs derived from composite substantives do not change their stress

pattern. Cp. such verbs as backwash, background, afterdate, by-pass,

counterweight, outlaw, outline, underbrush which are forestressed like

their underlying nominal bases. This also explains the fluctuation in the

stressing of counter- verbs, as counter-sign, counter-sink, stressed like

the substantives though the verbal stress pattern is middle stress/heavy

stress.

With unit words the current tendency is to retain the stress of the

underlying basis in deverbal nouns as well as in denominal verbs. We may

call this homologic stressing. Bradin/5/ had stated the fact for denominal

verbs without, however, discussing the problem as to the obvious

exceptions, while Jespersen/7/ speaks of ‘such an important thing in ford-

formation as the stress-shifting in record substantive and verb’.

To a certain extent, it is a stress distinction between nouns and

verbs which are otherwise homophonous. This distinctive stress pattern

occurs chiefly with disyllabic words, record substantive / record verb.

examples are contract, accent, affix, infix, prefix, suffix, augment,

impress, concert, contrast, convert, escort, essay, export, object,

subject, project, present, progress, protest, survey, torment, transfer.

The number of non-shifting examples is much greater, however. It will

be first given instances of forestressed words with homologic stress:

comment, compact, exile, figure, plaster, preface, prelude, prison,

quarrel, climax, focus, herald, process, program, triumph, waitress, rivet,

segment, sojourn, turmoil, contact, ‘bring or come into contact’, congress

‘meet in a congress’, incense ‘burn incense’, probate. To these may be

added such verbs as are felt to be derived from a substantive and therefore

forestressed like the underlying bases, at least in AE: accent, conflict,

concrete (as in concrete a wall, also in OED), contract (as in contract a

document), digest (as digest a book), export, import (prob. originating in

contrastive stressing), recess (as recess a wall), survey (in certain

senses), torment (frequent), transfer (the regular stressing as a railway

team).

The group of non-shifting endstressed words is considerably larger.

Unit words beginning with de-, dis-, re- are especially numerous. Examples

are: accord, advance, assent, attack, decay, delay, defeat, dispatch,

despute, escape, exclaim, (as a deverbal substantive ‘presenting position

of a rifle’), precise, relax, remove, repay, reform, support (Biese/4/).

On the other hand, it is found instances of distinctive stressing in

AE: address, conserves, discard, discharge are often heard with forestress

when substantives, also relay and research; reject substantive with

forestress is the only pronunciation possible. Of these, relay and research

may be explained as reinterpretations after the t. reprint substantive

/reprint verb; reject is perh. influenced by subject, object, project,

traject. In any case, this tendency towards distinctive stress in deverbal

substantives is weak as compared with that towards homologic stress.

To sum up: the tendency with denominal verbs is to give them the

stress of the underlying nominal basis, which has in many cases led to

homologic stress with all or part of the verbal meanings versus older

distinctive stress. Deverbal substantives, on the whole, show the same

inclination to homologic stress. But there is also a weak tendency towards

distinctive stress, though chiefly in AE. As for the tendency toward stress

distinction between nominal and verbal homophones pointed out by

Jespersen/7/, it was perhaps vaguely on the analogy of composites that it

came into existence. The original stress with these loans from French or

Latin was on the last syllable (F absent, L abstract(um)), so verbs

retained this stress all the more easily as many native verbs were so

stressed: become, believe, forbid, forget, mislead etc., whereas almost all

disyllabic native substantives, unit words as well as composites were

forestressed (the few contrary examples such as unhealth, unrest, untruth,

belief hardly count against the overwhelming majority). This may have led

to a tendency towards forestress with non-native disyllabic substantives

too. But what has taken on the character of a strong derivative device with

composites has proved much weaker with unit words on account of their

entirely different structure. Further development seems to point in the

direction of homologic stressing.

Combination of the type hanger-on may be mentioned here. As they are

functionally characterized by the suffix -er, the absence of stress shift

is only natural. The stress pattern of the underlying verbal phrase is

retained.

The abilities in production new words from colourmarcking adjectives.

The world around of us is the world of colour and paints, for which a

variety of combinations and shades is characteristic. The colour is one of

properties of objects of the material world and is perceived as the

realized visual sensation. The adjectives are used as a special part of

speech serving for a colour designation . The word-formation serves for a

designation of colour shades of adjectives, and also for the parts of

speech formed from them. Between that, the word-formation aspect of lexic

has remained indifferently, word-formation relations inside this layer,

with its originality, deserves the attention by way of their description

and study in the language.

The word-formation is a system, which unites grammatical and lexical,

that speaks about its enterlevel character and allows to apply the complex

approach to the investigated phenomena. Essence of grammar of a word-

formation suffix, which signals about the belonging a derivative word to

this or that part of speech and defines its paradigm, confirms this idea.

Also, on the basic purpose, which consists in creation of a new word and

updating of the vocabulary , the indissoluble unity of a word-formation and

lexicon is shown. Besides the word-formation, having own sphere of

research, studies word-formation resources and processes conducting to

creation of word-formation models, and also condition of functioning and

filling the lasts.

As the adjectives of a colourmarking concern to the most ancient layer

of lexicon, at their analysis there was necessary to pay attention to the

facts of diachronic, and also to consider an originality of the given group

of words, which is allocated with the various symbolic. This circumstance

finds the reflection in formation of portable meanings which are included

in lexical-semantic structure of initial adjectives, and influences the

lexical filling of word-formation models their derivatives.

The study of lexical-semantic structures of colourmarking adjectives

has shown unusual connection of colour and noncolour meanings, variety of

their shades, the influence of the nonlanguage validity on semantics of a

word. It was established, that the contextual environment of colourmarking

adjectives has the large importance for the adequate description of their

lexical-semantic structures.

The word-formation model is closely connected to word-formation

paradigm. Each adjective has own paradigm having unequal extent and various

morpheme filling of models, included in it. On the basis of research of

each separate paradigm, it is possible to deduce the generalized word-

formation paradigm of the given group of words, which is characterized by

presence constant, basic, facultative and even “unique” participants, that

is shown in the limits of the language.

The word-formation can be made:

1) inside one part of speech: A+suf=A1

2) by a transposition: - A+suf=N,

- A+suf=V,

- A+suf=D,

- V+suf=N,

where A - initial adjective, suf - word-forming suffix, A1, N, V, D -

derivatives: adjective, noun, verb, adverb.

1. A+suf=A1.

The basic suffixes -ish, -y are the constant and obligatory members of

general word-formation paradigm, i.e. enter into the paradigm of each

adjective.

2.1 A+suf=N.

-ness is the conducting suffix here. The abstract nouns belong to this

model in the English language: blueness.

Other derivatives, in which formation the various suffixes take part,

are facultative, i.e. can be found in paradigm of one or two adjectives.

The presence of the facultative members depends on portable and minor

meanings which are included in lexical-semantic structure of initial

lexises. So in a derivative noun “blueism” one of meanings of the adjective

“blue” - "интеллектуальный", "ученый", "премудрый" etc. is realized, and

the suffix -ism introduces in the semantics of the derivative the

generalized meaning.

The portable meaning of an adjective “green” - "неопытный", "незрелый"

is shown in the appropriate derivatives – “greener, greenie” - carriers of

this quality. It is necessary to note, that paradigmatic lines can have

unequal extent because of the facultative members. “Green - greenness,

greenery, greenth, greenage, greener, greenie, greenlet, greening,

greenling”.

Speaking about the semantic of the derivatives it is necessary to note

that their polysemantic is in the direct dependence on character of lexical-

semantic structure of an initial basis. Depending on a context the suffix

noun “blueness “ one of the meanings of motivating adjectives realizes: «

синева, лазурь, синий цвет » (blue – “синий, голубой” -the actualizing of

the basic colour meaning), "синяк" ( the actualizing of minor meaning),

«ученость, премудрость, интеллектуальность» (blueism), "«непристойность"

(blue-joke - « неприличная, непристойная шутка » - the actualizing of

portable meaning).

The realization of the model A+suf=N is connected to redistribution

of semas and one-radical parts of speech in semantic structure. General-

categorical sema of that part of speech, in which the initial lexis was

transposed - here it is a sema of a subject inherent by a noun, become the

basic one. After it, semas, subordinated to it: abstract, concrete and

animate, follow, depending on character of a derivative noun. Only then

the general-categorical sema of an initial adjective - sema of an attribute

settles down.

2.2 A+suf=V.

The suffix verbs formed from colourmarking adjectives, carry

facultative character (redden, blacken, whiten) and differ by the ramified

lexical-semantic structure. Its size is defined not only because of

entrance simultaneously of semas of transitivity and intransitivity in it,

but also due to more various lexical semantics. The given model also is

characterized by redistribution of semas, which occurs at a verbal

transposition. The conducting place is occupied by a general-categorical

sema of verbs – the sema of process, and also semas, subordinated to it, of

transitivity and intransitivity. Only after them the sema of an attribute

inherent in initial adjectives, follows.

2.3 A+suf=D.

This model is submitted in the English language by a suffix -ly, and

the derivative adverbs are the constant members of the paradigm (bluely,

brownly, greenly, yellowly).

2.4 V+suf=N.

In the English language this model is submitted by suffix nouns formed

from verbs. To blue bluer « тот, кто воронит сталь ». The English deverbal

nouns with a suffix -ing are characterized by constant participation in

paradigm (blueing, browning, greening, redding, yellowing).

Besides the affix models, examining the word-formation opportunities

of colourmarking adjectives the important role is played by models of an

affixless wordmaking. They assume an obligatory transposition of parts of

speech. If the distinctive feature of an affix word-making is the presence

of a marker as a final word-forming suffix, then such marker is not present

at the affixless (implicit) word-making. Because of its complexity the

problem of an affixless word-making is examined from various points of

view, and the ways for its solution are planned:

1. The word-formation means of this way of a word-making come to

light;

2. The processes occurring at an affixless word-making, are

examined in connection with typological features of the language and its

morphological build;

3. The criteria for a synchronous establishment of a direction of

a derivation are developed;

4. Various methods of the analysis are applied, supplementing each

other.

Two basic models of an affixless word-making were allocated: A(N, A(

V.

The model A(N reflects the phenomenon of a substantivation.

The English language, where the category of a gender is absent,

aspires to include various meanings in one lexeme structure and to expand

volume of its lexical-semantic structure by that, at realization of this

model. An indispensable condition of functioning derivative, formed on the

given model, is the change of categorial semantics of a part of speech and

redistribution of semas in their semantic structure. Besides an obligatory

general-categorial sema of a noun -the sema of a subject, for the English

derivative lexeme the entry in its structure simultaneously of semas

abstract and concrete, animate and inanimateness etc. is peculiar, that is

the specific feature of the English language. In the English language, with

its analytical tendency, there is an aspiration to a full semantic filling

of a word.

The character of semantic shifts occurring at realization of this

model, can be explained with help of lexical-semantic structure, where

the meaning contains, which is modified in appropriate derivatives. The

nouns formed on this model, are included into the structure of various

phraseologies: out of blue - is "неожиданно". It shows the connection of

word-formation and phraseological systems of the language.

There is an interest in the cases when in a basis of phraseologies the

various colour associations lay: to fire into the brown - « стрелять мимо

цели, неметко ».

The comparison of models of an affix and affixless word-making shows,

that the distinctive attribute of the lasts is in their poly-semantic not

as in the appropriate suffix models , the most important feature is the

opportunity of being included in various phraseologies.

A(V. The typological feature of these verbs is that they include the

semas of transitivity and intransitivity in their lexical-semantic

structure and it expand the categorial semantic because of it.

The portable meanings of the colourmarking adjectives find their

reflections in the English verbs : to green « обманывать, мистифицировать

»( green « доверчивый, простодушный ».

The word addition has the wide circulation among the suffix and prefix

word-formation during the all extent of development of the language.

The number of questions are allocated from all of problems concerning

formation of complex words,: 1) the compatibility of the appropriate

colourmarking adjectives with other categories of words; 2) what element

of meaning, basic or portable, is realized there; 3) distribution of models

of complex words in the parts of speech; 4) feature of their structure and

functioning.

To typological criteria also belong: a) number of components forming a

new word; b) a way of the connection components:

· full complete;

· is incomplete combined;

· connection with the help of service words;

c) A type of the semantic connection between the components of a

complex word, which carries an attribute character in the examined models.

Complex nouns including the colourmarking adjective as one of the

components, makes out the lexical groups of words. The names of plants,

animal, minerals etc. concern to them. The complex words which in result

of metonym carry from a part on whole serve the name of an animal or plant

widely submitted among them : redbreast "малиновка". It, so-called,

"bahoovrihs". The group of words is also allocated, where the colourmarking

adjectives, combining with the name of clothes, form " bahoovrihs ", used

for calling the man: blue jacket "матрос". At the same time there is a

number of differences in еру realization of models of complex nouns and

their functioning. In the English language there are difficulties in the

differentiation of complex word from word combination. It is depend on

the nonexpressed morphological structure of the English word. Frequently

English language prefers word combinations: to look blue «выглядеть унылым

». Because of that the English language has a plenty of phraseological word

combinations including colourmarking adjectives : blue devils "хандра",

brown study « мрачное раздумье ». The increased

lexical-semantic structure with a metamorphosing of meanings is the

characteristic feature of the English complex word : blue-cap «круглая

плоская синяя шапочка (ее раньше носили в Шотландии)», «шотландцы», «лосось

первого года жизни», «синица», «василек», «сорт пива».

The basic type of a complex word is two-componented, the basic way of

connection of the components is full complete. The connection with the help

of a connecting element is not very typically for the English language.

The models of complex adjectives including colourmarking adjectives as

one of components, are present in the English language. As the basic part

of speech expressing colour shades, are the adjectives, the basic attention

is given to the appropriate complex adjectives. The English language,

besides complex words, aspires to use the word combinations, and also

derivative and radical lexemes: purple.

The formation of compound verbs on conversion is typical of the

English language: to bluestocking « быть синим чулком », to brownbag

(slang) « приносить в ресторан свою еду ». Last word is rather new, that

speaks about the role of the given tendency in a word-formation of the

English language, it is also possible the further word-making - brown –

bagger.

III. Practical part.

It is impossible to underestimate a role of studying of a word-

formation in an primary school. As the teaching of foreign language should

pass in complex, i.e. the studying English should include the basic

directions: grammar, phonetics and lexicon, the importance of studying of

word-formation aspect of lexicon becomes doubtless. The studying of

conversion, which because of the extreme productivity is one of conducting

ways of creation the new words in the English language, can become one of

the ways of updating of the child’s vocabulary . Here it should be noted

the importance of lexicon, in general, in studying of foreign language in

primary school. The lexicon should be acquired in system, therefore the

work above the child’s vocabulary should begin from the first day of

studying English and proceed during the all period of training, day-to-

day.

One of the basic principles of selection of lexicon in primary school

is the common use, i.e. the opportunity of the using in the colloquial

speech, hence, in the younger classes is not selected special lexicon as

the words for studying. The very small quantity of time is allocated for

acquaintance and training of that lexicon, which is not of a situation,

necessary for creation of a dialogue.

The plenty of time is allocated for studying of a word, acquaintance

with its meaning, its role in the sentence, in the system of language,

however items of information about its formation and opportunity of

formation new words from it are given, only if the speech goes about a word

formed suffix, seldom prefix, way of a word-formation. The words formed on

conversion, are simply showed, as two different parts of speech, that does

not give an opportunity to children itself to make words, basing on the

knowledge of this way of a word-formation. For comprehension of importance

of this aspect of language it is necessary to address to a psychological

linguistic nature of lexicon. You see in psychology the word is the complex

activator, for example, at perception and understanding of oral and written

speech, this complex speech action (at expression of thoughts). At

understanding of a word the acoustical and visual analyzers will be

involved, and this integrated approach promotes the best mastering. The

dialogue in foreign language is rather difficult activity for the child. It

occurs that, first, for the younger schoolboy it is much easier to

communicate on the native language much and it is not clearly, why he

should express in English, secondly, for this purpose it is necessary to

make rather difficult mental operation - to choose the words, suitable on

sense, from the vocabulary to construct the sentence grammatically

correctly, observing thus the words order , i.e. to do so that to be

understood. Becomes obvious, that the updating of the child’s vocabulary

is one of the basic problem for the teacher, you see the word is a basic

minimal unit of any language.

The studying of conversion, as one of ways of a word-formation, will

help to do the child‘s vocabulary more rich, to make his speech more

expressive, and also to fill up passive and active vocabulary, by means of

formation the new words himself. Now, reading, for example, a book, it

will not be necessary to him to look for a word formed on conversion, in

the dictionary, but to define its meaning, using the knowledge of this

phenomenon of language. Especially, the nouns and verbs formed from

adjectives of a colourmarking by this way, are included into structure of

various phraseologies, where carry more often portable meaning.

Some courses, foreign and Russian were analysed, where English is

taught, as foreign language. It is interesting to note, that the word-

formation is not studied neither in primary, nor in secondary school,

however, it is possible to find some items concerning this aspect of

lexicon. Courses: Russian (English by Vereshchagina, Pretykina and Learning

English by Skulta) and foreign (Magic Time and Hot Line by Tom Hutchinson)

have various methodical base, usually it is: some text books, teacher's

book, reading book , active book, audio cassettes. There is not any word

about conversion in this courses, however, words formed in this way are

given simply as different parts of speech, and the connection between them

is not explained.

With the purpose of revealing a level of children’s knowledge about

a conversion word-formation the ascertaining experiment was done, where

children were offered to do the following task (see appendix 1). Every

pupil have received individual card, in which a number of pairs sentences

on English with translation and the missed words was given. The list of

words was located below, from which it was necessary to choose a word,

suitable on sense, and to insert it into the appropriate sentence. In 10

minutes the works were gathered. (Results of experiment see appendix 7,

table 1)

For formation the skill of the conscious using words formed by a way

of conversion ,in oral and written speech and also for acquaintance with

its role in the English language the forming experiment including number of

the tasks, promoting to achievement of this purpose was done. The final

aim was not in remembering the term conversion and its definitions by the

pupils, but in understanding of sense of the phenomenon, as one of the

most productive ways of formation of new words in the English language. At

the first stage, on an example of two sentences, using the leading

questions, children come to a conclusion, that the same word can represent

various parts of speech (see appendix 2). At the following stage was

primary fastening of this material, i.e. the schoolboys were offered to

explain the statement of this or that word in the sentence on an example of

a material of ascertaining experiment (see appendix 3). The following task

consist in the following: a number of adjectives of a colourmarking was

offered to children who needed to translate them; it is quite natural,

that the schoolboys have apprehended them as adjectives. Further before the

younger schoolboys the dilemma was put: whether these words can have the

pair, which would be the other part of speech without changing the form of

the word. All children successfully have coped with this task, using the

dictionaries, conclusion that these pairs of words illustrate the

phenomenon of conversion, was made by schoolboys by themselves (see

appendix 4). Further group of children was divided into the brigades, the

individual word was offered to every one, with which they needed to do the

following operations: to find out, one or several parts of speech can be

represented by this word to prove it, it was necessary to make the

sentences with these words and to explain an belonging the word to this

or that part of speech. By the purpose of this task was to fix the pupils’s

knowledge of this theme, and also to train in the using of these words in

the sentence, in particular, and in speech in general (see appendix 4). At

the following stage of generalization of the knowledge and fastening,

automation of skill of the using the words formed on conversion the task

consist in, that 1) to define a part of speech of the allocated words in

the sentence, 2) to make the sentences similar by the given ones, 3) to

define a part of speech of the words submitted outside of a context. The

third part of the task is obviously impracticable, because it was given

only the graphic form of a word, that in general ruled out any opportunity

to differentiate it as part of speech. It is natural, that children have

done only the two first parts of the task, last part has caused them the

quite justified difficulties, and by the method of group work succeeded to

come to the conclusion that the words given only in a graphic form, can

designate different parts of speech, for the confirmation it the schoolboys

had to use the dictionaries (see appendix 5). If to speak about the whole

forming experiment, it is possible to note, that the children liked the

tasks, they tried to do everything in time. Though this experiment did

not put as the purpose the remembering the term conversion and its

definitions by the children , however, almost all children used it in the

demonstration and independent explanation.

The purpose of a check experiment was revealing the level of

children’s knowledge . For this purpose the test was offered to the

schoolboys, where answering on questions "yes", "no", they came to a

certain pictogram, which designated the certain mark. The questions are

made by a principle from simple to difficult, therefore children at first

have apprehended this task, as a game (see appendix 6). The results of

check have shown a rather high level of the knowledge (see appendix 7,

table 2).

Considering the results of the done work, it is possible to come to

conclusion that the studying of this theme regularly, can give quite

acceptable results. Though there is no sufficient methodical base, which

could help with formation of the skill of using the words formed on

conversion in oral and written speech, mastering children of knowledge on

this theme however is possible. As the adequate moment of a beginning

studying of this phenomenon it is possible to consider the third year of

training of foreign language in a primary school. The studying of this

aspect of the English language promotes the enrichment of the child’s

dictionary , and as it was spoken plays not the last role in studying of

the language, forms the skill of independent work, develops such mental

processes, as memory, logic thinking, ability to analyze and to compare.

The next years of training the deepening and expansion of this theme with a

support on the items of information received in an elementary school is

possible.

IV. Conclusion.

The examination of the works of some authors (Adams, Jespersen,

Marchand/1, 7, 10/), shows such problem, as the exact status of conversion

within word-formation is unclear. For some scholars conversion is a brunch

of derivation, for others it is a separate type of word-formation, on level

with derivation and compounding. Whether this distinction has any real

effect on the structure of a theory of word-formation. Most writers use

both terms appear to use them as synonyms. However many authors agreed that

the conversion is one of the most productive ways of a word-formation and

is a lexical category, though many of them show it as a grammatical

category too. Then the word changes the form class of a form without any

corresponding changes of form, it accepts all grammatical attributes of

this class. The significant productivity of conversion word-formation is

shown also in ability of formation the new words practically from any part

of speech, including prepositions. In the paper the models of conversion

word-formation are submitted, such as: verb(substantive, verb(adjective,

verb(locative particles, verb(interjections, substantive(verb. Examining

the opportunities of formation the new words from adjectives of a

colourmarking, it is possible to note, that they participate in suffix,

conversion word-formation, and also form new words by word adding. And at

any of these ways can be realized both direct, and portable meaning, and

the words formed on conversion (more often nouns) can be included into

structure of phraseologies.

The purpose of the put experiments of a practical part of this paper

was achieved. Children have acquired the offered initial knowledge of a

theme of a conversion word-formation, have learned to use such words in

oral and written speech. Besides it, they have remembered the term

"conversion".

Taking into account the quite good results, received during the

experiment, it is possible to plan the further ways of development of

studying this way of word-formation at school and, in particular, in

primary classes. The further studying of this phenomenon can be done by

offering serially one of the models V(A, N(V etc. It is possible to predict

the successful result of this studying,, and at the end, children would be

able to find the examples of conversion word-formation and use them in

oral and written speech

V. Bibliography.

1. Adams, V. An introduction to Modern English word-

formation. Longman. 1973.

2. Bauer, L. English word-formation. Cambridge. 1983.

2. Bett, H. Wandering among words. Allemand. 1936.

3. Biese, Y. Origin and development of conversion in English.

Helsinki. 1941.

4. Brown, I. Just another word. Cape. 1943.

5. Bladin, V. Studies and denominative verbs in English. Uppsala.

1911.

6. Jespersen, O. A modern English grammar on historical principles.

Copenhagen. 1942.

7. Kruisinga, E. A handbook of present day English. Groningen. 1932.

8. Lyons, J. Introduction to theoretical linguistic. London. 1972.

9. Marchand, H. The categories and types of present day word-

formation. Harrassowitz. 1960.

10. Mencken, H. The American language. New York. 1936.

11. Vallins, G. The making and meaning of words. Black, London. 1941.

12. Воронцова, Г. Очерки по грамматике английского языка. М. 1960.

13. Жирмунская, М. Л. Словообразовательные потенции прилагательных

цветообозначения в современных германских языках. М., 1982.

14. Иванова, И. П. Христоматия по истории английского языка. Л.

1973.

15. Каращук, П. Словообразование английского языка. М. 1977.

17. Мешков, О. Словообразование в современном английском

языке. М. 1976.

18. Сильницкий, Г (отв. ред.). Проблемы английского

словообразования. Смоленск. 1976.

19. Смирницкий, А. История английского языка. М. 1953.

20. Смирницкий, А. Лексикология современного английского языка. М.

1956.

Dictionaries.

-Berg, P. A dictionary of new words in English. London. 1953.

-Jones, D. An English pronouncing dictionary. London. 1957.

-The Oxford pocket Russian dictionary. Oxford. 1994.

Appendix 1. Ascertaining experiment.

Цель: выявить уровень знаний учащихся об употреблении слов,

образованных по конверсии.

Задание: вставить слова подходящие по смыслу вместо … в предложения.

1. She … very well. Она готовит очень хорошо.

She is a good … . Она хороший повар.

2. There is a small … room in this flat. В этой квартире есть

маленькая квадратная комната.

There are a lot of parks and … in our city. В нашем городе много

парков и площадей.

3. The bush of … grows under the window. Куст сирени растет под окном.

I have very beautiful … dress. У меня есть очень красивое …

платье.

4. There are red and … flowers in the vase. В вазе стояли красные и

желтые цветы.

Leaves … in autumn. Листья желтеют осенью.

Слова для справки: cook, round, violet, yellow, sweet, look, lilac,

square.

Appendix 2. Forming experiment. Stage 1.

Цель всего формирующего эксперимента: сформировать навык сознательного

употребления слов, образованных по конверсии, в устной и письменной речи.

Задачи:

1) образовательная:

. грамматическая: повторять употребление времен группы Simple и

Continuous;

. лексическая: привести детей к пониманию смысла изучаемого

явления, пополнение активного словаря ребенка посредством

знакомства с новыми словами, с конверсией, как одним из способов

словообразования, посредством перевода некоторых слов из

пассивного словаря в активный;

. фонетическая: тренировать в произнесении необходимых звуков,

особенно звуков второй и третей группы сложности.

2) воспитательная: учить детей самостоятельно находить информацию, в

т.ч. пользоваться словарями, воспитывать чувство взаимопомощи и

взаимовыручки;

3) развивающая: развивать такие психические функции, как память,

логическое мышление, произвольное внимание.

| | |примерные |

|этапы |содержание |ответы |

| | |учащихся |

|Основная|Look at the blackboard. Who can | |

|часть |read these sentences? | |

| |I like this sweet. | |

| |This apple is sweet. | |

| |Who can translate these |-мне нравится|

| |sentences? |эта конфета. |

| | |Это яблоко |

| | |сладкое. |

| |Right. Как вы думаете, почему |-потому что |

| |именно эти два слова выделены? |они |

| | |одинаковые. |

| |А я сейчас вам докажу, что это не | |

| |совсем так. Давайте внимательно | |

| |посмотрим, какой частью речи |Это |

| |является это слово в первом |существитель-|

| |предложении? |ное. |

| | |Это |

| | |прилагательно|

| |А во втором? |е |

| | | |

| |Так что же это получается, может |Нет, оба |

| |одно из них неправильное? |правильные. |

| | | |

| |Значит, действительно так бывает, | |

| |что одно и то же слово может | |

| |обозначать разные части речи. Это| |

| |бывает только в английском языке, |Мороженое –и |

| |или кто-нибудь знает подобные |прилагательно|

| |примеры и в русском? |е, и |

| | |существитель-|

|Вывод: | |ное. |

| | |В английском |

| | |языке, так же|

| |Значит, какой вывод мы можем |как и в |

| |сделать из того, что мы сейчас |русском есть |

| |выяснили? |такие слова, |

| | |внешне ничем |

| | |не |

| | |отличающиеся,|

| | |но |

| | |обозначающие |

| | |разные части |

| | |речи. |

Appendix 3. Forming experiment. Stage 2.

| | |примерные ответы|

|этапы |содержание |учащихся |

|Основна|Давайте вспомним ту работу, | |

|я часть|которую мы писали. Те слова, | |

| |которые нужно было вставить я | |

| |выделила другим цветом. Вам | |

| |нужно только объяснить, какой | |

| |частью речи они выражены и | |

| |почему вы так решили. |-здесь это слово|

| |1. She cooks very well. Она |является |

| |готовит очень хорошо. |глаголом, т.к. |

| | |обозначает |

| | |действие, |

| | |является |

| | |сказуемым и |

| |She is a good cook . Она |оканчивается на|

| |хороший повар. |s, а это |

| | |окончание |

| | |глаголов 3 л. н.|

| | |вр. |

| |2. There is a small square room|-это |

| |in this flat. В этой квартире |существи-тельное|

| |есть маленькая квадратная |, т.к. перед ним|

| |комната. |стоит артикль и |

| | |прилагательное. |

| | |-это |

| | |прилагательное, |

| |There are a lot of parks and |т.к. стоит перед|

| |squares in our city. В нашем |существительным |

| |городе много парков и |и говорит о том,|

| |площадей. |какая это |

| | |комната |

| | |- |

| | |существительное,|

| | |здесь оно |

| | |оканчивается на |

| |3. The bush of lilac grows |s, потому что |

| |under the window. Куст сирени |существительное |

| |растет под окном. |стоит во |

| |I have very beautiful lilac |множественном |

| |dress. У меня есть очень |числе. |

| |красивое сиреневое платье. |-существительное|

| |4. There are red and yellow |, обозначает |

| |flowers in the vase. В вазе |название |

| |стояли красные и желтые цветы.|растения. |

| | |-прилагательное,|

| |Leaves yellow in autumn. |т.к. обозначает |

| |Листья желтеют осенью. |признак |

| | |предмета. |

| | |-прилагательное,|

| | |т.к. обозначает |

| | |признак |

| |Давайте подумаем, почему вы не |предмета. |

| |справились с этим заданием |-глагол, т.к. |

| |раньше. Что нам еще раз |обозначает |

| |подтвердили эти предложения? |действие и в |

| | |предложении |

| | |является |

| | |сказуемым. |

| | | |

| |Такое превращение слова из | |

| |одной части речи в другую в | |

| |английском языке называется |-мы не знали о |

| |«конверсия». Посмотрите, какими|том, что |

| |частями речи может быть |одинаково |

|Итог: |обозначено одно слово? |написанные слова|

| | |могут обозначать|

| | |разные части |

| |Какими частями речи может быть |речи. |

| |одно и то же слово? Кто | |

| |запомнил, как называется это | |

| |явление? | |

| | | |

| | |Сущ. - глагол, |

| | |прил. –глагол, |

| | |прил. – сущ. |

| | | |

| | | |

| | |Конверсия. |

Appendix 4. Forming experiment. Stage 3.

|этапы |содержание |Примерные |

| | |ответы |

| | |учащихся |

|Основная |Скажите, все ли вы знаете об | |

|часть: |английских прилагательных, | |

| |обозначающих цвета? |-да. |

| |Посмотрите на доску, | |

| |прочитайте слова и переведите:| |

| | |-голубой, |

| |Blue, black, pink, yellow, |черный, |

| |violet, lilac. |розовый, |

| | |желтый, |

| | |фиолетовый, |

| | |сиреневый. |

| | | |

| |А теперь возьмите словари и | |

| |проверьте, нет ли у этих | |

| |слов, кроме этого значения | |

| |цвета, другие значения, |-небо, траур,|

| |выраженные другой частью речи?|гвоздика, |

| | |желтеть, |

| | |фиалка, |

| | |сирень. |

|Мини | | |

|вывод: | |У |

| |Какой вывод мы можем сделать? |прилагательны|

| | |х , |

| | |обозначающих |

| | |цвета тоже |

| | |встречается |

| | |такое явление|

| | |«конверсия». |

Stage 4.

|Работа в |Теперь вам нужно разделиться на| |

|бригадах.|бригады по три человека. | |

| |Задание будет общим, но слова | |

| |будут разные: | |

| |green, look, bath, dry. У | |

| |каждой бригады свое слово, с | |

| |ним нужно сделать следующее: | |

| |найти все его значения в | |

| |словаре, узнать, в роли каких | |

| |частей речи оно может | |

| |выступать, составить | |

| |предложения, в которых бы | |

| |отражались по возможности все | |

|Проверка:|значения. (15 мин.) | |

| |(один чел. из бригады читает | |

| |все значения, другой записывает| |

| |предло-жение на доске, | |

| |остальные-проверяют.) | |

Appendix 5. Forming experiment. Stage 5.

|Этапы |Содержание |примерные |

| | |ответы |

| | |учащихся |

|Повторение:|Что вы знаете о конверсии в | |

| |английском языке? |В английском |

| | |языке есть |

| | |такие слова, |

| | |которые, не |

| | |меняя формы, |

| | |могут |

| | |выражать |

| | |разные части |

| | |речи. |

| |Какими частями речи может быть | |

| |одно и то же слово? |Существительн|

| | |ое – глагол, |

| | |прилагательно|

| | |е – глагол, |

| | |прилагательно|

| | |е – |

| | |существительн|

| | |ое. |

| |С.р.:1)Указать часть речи | |

|Основная |выделенных слов: | |

|часть: |I heard a cry from the closed | |

| |door. | |

| |They cry because they can’t go | |

| |for a walk. | |

| |I have a very tasty fish for | |

| |dinner. | |

| |We are going to fish next | |

| |Sunday. | |

| |I don’t like when the weather | |

| |is cold. | |

| |The cold helps to safe food | |

| |fresh. | |

| |I like to dance. | |

| |We liked their dance. | |

| |2) Составить пару предложений, | |

| |чтобы слова hate – ненависть, | |

| |ненавидеть, hunt – охота, | |

| |охотиться, lift – лифт, | |

| |поднимать употреблялись в | |

| |первом предложении как | |

| |существительное, а во втором | |

|Проверка: |как глагол. | |

| |3) определить часть речи | |

| |следующих слов: round, fly, | |

| |harm, alarm. | |

| | | |

| |(дети проверяют работы друг |Сущ., прил. |

| |друга по образцу, написанному |Нет. |

| |на доске: 1. Сущ., гл., сущ., |Потому что |

| |гл., прил., сущ., гл., сущ). |это слово |

| |Второе задание я проверю сама. |может быть и |

| |А вот скажите мне, какой части |существительн|

| |речи слово round? |ым, и |

| |А можем мы определить часть |прилагательны|

| |речи? |м. |

| |Почему? | |

|Итог: | | |

| | | |

| | | |

| | | |

| | | |

| | | |

| |Действительно вне контекста | |

| |мы не можем с точностью | |

| |сказать, какая это часть речи, | |

| |конечно, если перед словом | |

| |стоит артикль, то мы можем | |

| |сказать, что это | |

| |существительное. Если же дано | |

| |только графическое изображение| |

| |слова, мы не сможем | |

| |определить часть речи. | |

Appendix 6. Control experiment.

Цель: выявление уровня знаний учащихся по пройденному материалу.

Задачи:

1) образовательные:

. грамматическая: повторение времен группы Simple, Continuous;

. лексическая: проверка усвоения начальных сведений о явлении

конверсии, контроль формирования навыка употребления таких слов;

2) воспитательная: воспитывать самостоятельность;

3) развивающая: развивать психические функции, такие как память,

логическое мышление, произвольное внимание.

Детям предлагается следующий тест:

В английском языке слова могут обозначать не одну, а

несколько частей речи (присутствует понятие конверсии).

Appendix 7. The results of Ascertaining and Control experiment.

| |Не справились с |Средний уровень. |Все выполнено |

| |работой. | |верно. |

|Количество | | | |

|человек из |9 |3 |0 |

|12. | | | |

|Количество в | | | |

|% от 100%. |75% |25% |0% |

| |Не справились с |Средний уровень. |Все выполнено |

| |работой. | |верно. |

|Количество | | | |

|человек из |1 |3 |8 |

|12. | | | |

|Количество в | | | |

|% от 100%. |8,3% |25% |6,7% |

-----------------------

Это такие слова, как: clean, green, cook, orange.

Слово green является прилагательным.

Слово black может быть и существительным, и прилагательным.

A pink-«гвоздика, розовый»

Предложение: “ The leaves on this tree yellows in autumn.” построено

правильно.

Pink перево-дится -«розовый».

Этот тест сложный для тебя?

Предложения: “My hat is violet.

I have a violet hat.” подтверждают выводы по нашей теме.

Yellow переводится, как желтый и как желтеть (to yellow).

A violet переводится, как «фиалка».

Предложение: «В сиреневой вазе стояла ветка сирени.» переводится так:

“There was a branch of lilac in the lilac vase”.

Blue может переводиться как «небо».

Оба выделенных слова являются прилагательными.

Первое выделенное слово- прилагательное, второе- существительное.

Неправильно, потому что оба выделенные слова являются существительными.

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