Cultural Values

properly treated, to indicate that his dignity is under attack. Not so. The

clock on the wall may look the same but it tells a different sort of time.

The cultural error may be compounded by' a further miscalculation. In

the United States, a consistently tardy man is likely to be considered

undependable, and by our cultural clock this is a reasonable conclusion.

For you to judge a Latin American by your scale of time values is to risk a

major error.

Suppose you have waited forty-five minutes and there is a man in his

office, by some miracle alone in the room with you. Do you now get down to

business and stop "wasting time"?

If you are not forewarned by experience or a friendly advisor, you may

try to do this. And it would usually be a mistake. For, in the American

culture, discussion is a means to an end: the deal. You try to make your

point quickly, efficiently, neatly. If your purpose is to arrange some

major affairs, your instinct is probably to settle the major issues first,

leave the details for later, possibly for the technical people to work out.

For the Latin American, the discussion is a part of the spice of life.

Just as he tends not to be overly concerned about reserving you your

specific segment of time, he tends not as rigidly to separate business from

non-business. He runs it all together and wants to make something of a

social event out of what you, in your .culture, regard as strictly

business.

The Latin American is not alone in this. The Greek businessman, partly

for the same and partly for different reasons, does not lean toward the

"hit-and-run" school of business behavior, either. The Greek businessman

adds to the social element, however, a feeling about what length of

discussion time constitutes go09 faith. In America, we show good faith by

ignoring the details. "Let's agree on the main points. The details will

take care of themselves."

Not so the Greek. He signifies good will and good faith by what may

seem to you an interminable discussion which includes every conceivable

detail. Otherwise, you see, he cannot help but feel that the other man

might be trying to pull the wool over his eyes. Our habit, in what we feel

to be our relaxed and friendly way, of postponing details until later

smacks the Greek between the eyes as a maneuver to flank him. Even if you

can somehow convince him that this is not the case, the meeting must still

go on a certain indefinite-but, by our standards, long-time or he will feel

disquieted.

The American desire to get down to business and on with other things

works to our disadvantage in other parts of the world, too; and not only in

business. The head of a large, successful Japanese firm commented: "You

Americans have a terrible weakness. We Japanese know about it and exploit

it every chance we get. You are impatient. We have learned that if we just

make you wait long enough, you'll agree to anything."

Whether this is literally true or not, the Japanese executive

singled out a trait of American culture which most of us share and which,

one may assume from the newspapers, the Russians have not overlooked,

either.

By acquaintance time we mean how long you must know a man be fore

you are willing to do business with him.

In the United States, if we know that a salesman represents a well

known, reputable company, and if we need his product, he may walk away from

the first meeting with an order in his pocket. A few minutes conversation

to decide matters of price, delivery, payment, model of product-nothing

more is involved. In Central America, local custom does not permit a

salesman to land in town, call on the customer and walk away with an order,

no matter how badly your prospect wants and needs your product. It is

traditional there that you must see your man at least three times before

you can discuss the nature of your business.

Does this mean that the South American businessman does not recognize

the merits of one product over another? Of course it doesn't. It is just

that the weight of tradition presses him to do business within a circle of

friends. If a product he needs is not available within his circle, he does

not go outside it so much as he enlarges the circle itself to include a new

friend who can supply the want. Apart from his cultural need to "feel

right" about a new relationship, there is the logic of his business system.

One of the realities of his life is that it is dangerous to enter into

business with someone over whom you have no more than formal, legal

"control." In the past decades, his legal system has not always been as

firm as ours and he has learned through experience that he needs the

sanctions implicit in the informal system of friendship.

Visiting time involves the question of who sets the time for a visit.

George Coelho, a social psychologist from India, gives an illustrative

case. A U.S. businessman received this invitation from an Indian

businessman: "Won't you and your family come and see us? Come any time."

Several weeks later, the Indian repeated the invitation in the same words.

Each time the American replied that he would certainly like to drop in-but

he never did. The reason is obvious in terms of our culture. Here "come any

time" is just an expression of friendliness. You are not really expected to

show up unless your host proposes a specific time. In India, on the

contrary, the words are meant literally-that the host is putting himself at

the disposal of his guest and really expects him to come. It is the essence

of politeness to leave it to the guest to set a time at his convenience. If

the guest never comes, the Indian naturally assumes that he does not want

to come. Such a misunderstanding can lead to a serious rift between men who

are trying to do business with each other.

Time schedules present Americans with another problem in many parts of

the world. Without schedules, deadlines, priorities, and timetables, we

tend to feel that our country could not run at all. Not only are they

essential to getting work done, but they also play an important role in the

informal communication process. Deadlines indicate priorities and

priorities signal the relative importance of people and the processes they

control. These are all so much a part of our lives that a day hardly passes

without some reference to them. "I have to be there by 6: 30." "If I don't

have these plans out by 5:00 they'll be useless." "I told J. B. I'd be

finished by noon tomorrow and now he tells me to drop everything and get

hot on the McDermott account. What do I do now?"

In our system, there are severe penalties for not completing work on

time and important rewards for holding to schedules. One's integrity and

reputation are at stake.

You can imagine the fundamental conflicts that arise when we attempt

to do business with people who are just as strongly oriented away from time

schedules as we are toward them.

The Middle Eastern peoples are a case in point. Not only is our idea

of time schedules no part of Arab life but the mere mention of a dead line

to an' Arab is like waving a red flag in front of a bull. In his culture,

your emphasis on a deadline has the emotional effect on him that his

backing you into a corner and threatening you with a club would have on

you.

One effect of this conflict of unconscious habit patterns is that

hundreds of American-owned radio sets are lying on the shelves of Arab

radio repair shops, untouched. The Americans made the serious cross-

cultural error of asking to have the repair completed by a certain time.

How do you cope with this? How does the Arab get another Arab to do

anything? Every culture has its own ways of bringing pressure to get

results. The usual Arab way is one which Americans avoid as "bad manners."

It is needling.

An Arab businessman whose car broke down explained it this way:

First, I go to the garage and tell the mechanic what is wrong with my

car. I wouldn't want to give him the idea that I didn't know. After that, I

leave the car and walk around the block. When I come back to the garage, I

ask him if he has started to work yet. On my way home from lunch I stop in

and ask him how things are going. When I go back to the office I stop by

again. In the evening, I return and peer over his shoulder for a while. If

I didn't keep this up, he'd be off working on someone else's car.

If you haven't been needled by an Arab, you just haven't been needled.

A PLACE FOR EVERYTHING

We say that there is a time and place for everything, but compared to

other countries and cultures we give very little emphasis to place

distinctions. Business is almost a universal value with us; it can be

discussed almost anywhere, except perhaps in church. One can even talk

business on the church steps going to and from the service. Politics is

only slightly more restricted in the places appropriate for its discussion.

In other parts of the world, there are decided place restrictions on

the discussion of business and politics. The American who is not conscious

of the unwritten laws will offend if he abides by his own rather than by

the local rules.

In India, you should not talk business when visiting a man's home. If

you do, you prejudice your chances of ever working out a satisfactory

business relationship.

In Latin America, although university students take an active interest

in politics, tradition decrees that a politician should avoid political

subjects when speaking on university grounds. A Latin American politician

commented to. anthropologist Allan Holmberg that neither he nor his fellow

politicians would have dared attempt a political speech on the grounds of

the University of San Marcos in Peru-as did Vice-President Nixon.

To complicate matters further, the student body of San Marcos,

anticipating the visit, had voted that Mr. Nixon would not be welcome. The

University Rector had issued no invitation, presumably because he expected

what did, in fact, happen.

As a final touch, Mr. Nixon's interpreter was a man in full military

uniform. In Latin American countries, some of which had recently overthrown

military dictators, the symbolism of the military uniform could hardly

contribute to a cordial atmosphere. Latin Americans need no reminder that

the United States is a great military power.

Mr. Nixon's efforts were planned in the best traditions of our own

culture; he hoped to improve relations through a direct, frank, and face-to-

face discussion with students-the future leaders of their country.

Unfortunately, this approach did not fit in at all with the culture of the

host country. Of course, elements hostile to the United States did their

best to capitalize upon this cross-cultural misunderstanding. However, even

Latin Americans friendly to us, while admiring the Vice President's

courage, found themselfes acutely embarrassed by the behavior of their

people and ours in the ensuing difficulties.

BEING COMFORTABLE IN SPACE

Like time and place, differing ideas of space hide traps for the

uninformed. Without realizing it, almost any person raised in the United

States is likely to give an unintended snub to a Latin American simply in

the way we handle space relationships, particularly during conversations.

In North America, the "proper" distance to stand when talking to

another adult male you do not know well is about two feet, at least in a

formal business conversation. (Naturally at a cocktail party, the distance

shrinks, but anything under eight to ten inches is likely to provoke an

apology or an attempt to back up.)

To a Latin American, with his cultural traditions and habits, a

distance of two feet seems to him approximately what five feet would to us.

To him, we seem distant and cold. To us, he gives an impression of

pushiness.

As soon as a Latin American moves close enough for him to feel

comfortable, we feel uncomfortable and edge back. We once observed a

Conversation between a Latin and a North American which began at one end of

a forty-foot hall. At intervals we noticed them again, finally at the other

end of the hall. This rather amusing displacement had been accomplished by

an almost continual series of small backward steps on the part of the

American, trying unconsciously to reach a comfortable talking distance, and

an equal closing of the gap by the Latin American as he attempted to reach

his accustomed conversation space.

Americans in their offices in Latin America tend to keep their native

acquaintances at our distance-not the Latin American's distance-by taking

up a position behind a desk or typewriter. The barricade approach to

communication is practiced even by old hands in Latin America who are

completely unaware of its cultural significance. They know only that they

are comfortable without realizing that the distance and equipment

unconsciously make the Latin American uncomfortable.

HOW CLASS CHANNELS COMMUNICATION

We would be mistaken to regard the communication patterns which we

observe around the world as no more than a miscellaneous collection of

customs. The communication pattern of a given society is part of its total

culture pattern and can only be understood in that context.

We cannot undertake here to relate many examples of communication

behavior to the underlying culture of the country. For the businessman, it

might be useful to mention the difficulties in the relationship between

social levels and the problem of information feedback from lower to higher

levels in industrial organizations abroad.

There is in Latin America a pattern of human relations and

unionmanagement relations quite different from that with which we are

familiar in the United States. Everett Hagen of MIT has noted the heavier

emphasis upon line authority and the lesser development of staff

organizations in Latin-American plants when compared with North American

counterparts. To a much greater extent than in the United States, the

government becomes involved in the handling of all kinds of labor problems.

These differences seem to be clearly related to the culture and

social organization of Latin America. We find there that society has been

much more rigidly stratified than it has with us. As a corollary, we find a

greater emphasis upon authority in family and the community.

This emphasis upon status and class distinction makes it very

difficult for people of different status levels to express themselves

freely and frankly in discussion and argument. In the past, the pattern has

been for the man of lower status to express deference to his superior in

any face-to-face contact. This is so even when everyone knows that the

subordinate dislikes the superior. The culture of Latin America places a

great premium upon keeping personal relations harmonious on the surface.

In the United States, we feel that it is not only desirable but

natural to speak up to your superior, to tell the boss exactly what you

think, even when you disagree with him. Of course, we do not always do

this, but we think that we should, and we feel guilty if we fail to speak

our minds frankly. When workers in our factories first get elected to local

union office, they may find themselves quite self-conscious about speaking

up to the boss and arguing grievances. Many of them, however, quickly learn

to do it and enjoy the experience. American culture emphasizes the

thrashing-out of differences in face-to-face contacts. It de-emphasizes the

importance of status. As a result, we have built institutions for handling

industrial disputes on the basis of the local situation, and we rely on

direct discussion by the parties immediately involved.

In Latin America, where it is exceedingly difficult for people to

express their differences face-to-face and where status differences and

authority are much more strongly emphasized than here, the workers tend to

look to a third party-the government-to take care of their problems. Though

the workers have great difficulty in thrashing out their problems with

management, they find no difficulty in telling government representatives

their problems. And it is to their government that they look for an

authority to settle their grievances with management.

Status and class also decide whether business will be done on an

individual or a group basis.

In the United States, we are growing more and more accustomed to

working as members of large organizations. Despite this, we still assume

that there is no need to send a delegation to do a job that one capable man

might well handle.

In some other parts of the world, the individual cannot expect to gain

the respect necessary to accomplish this purpose, no matter how capable he

is, unless he brings along an appropriate number of associates.

In the United States, we would rarely think it necessary or proper to

call on a customer in a group. He might well be antagonized by the hard

sell.

In Japan-as an example-the importance of the occasion and of the man

is measured by whom he takes along.

This practice goes far down in the business and government

hierarchies.

Even a university professor is likely to bring one or two retainers

along on academic business. Otherwise people might think that he was a

nobody and that his affairs were of little moment.

Even when a group is involved in the U.S., the head man is the

spokes man and sets the tone. This is not always the case in Japan. Two

young Japanese once requested an older American widely respected in Tokyo

to accompany them so that they could "stand on his face." He was not

expected to enter into the negotiation; his function was simply to be

present as an indication that their intentions were serious.

ADJUSTMENT GOES BOTH WAYS

One need not have devoted his life to a study of various cultures to

see that none of them is static. All are constantly changing and one

element of change is the very fact that U.S. enterprise enters a foreign

field. This is inevitable and may be constructive if we know how to utilize

our knowledge. The problem is for us to be aware of our impact and to learn

how to induce changes skillfully.

Rather than try to answer the general question of how two cultures

interact, we will consider the key problem of personnel selection and

development in two particular intercultural situations, both in Latin

cultures.

One U.S. company had totally different experiences with "Smith" and

"Jones" in the handling of its labor relations. The local union leaders

were bitterly hostile to Smith, whereas they could not praise Jones enough.

These were puzzling reactions to higher management. Smith seemed a fair

minded and understanding man; it was difficult to fathom how anyone could

be bitter against him. At the same time, Jones did not appear to be

currying favor by his generosity in giving away the firm's assets. To

management, he seemed to be just as firm a negotiator as Smith.

The explanation was found in the two men's communication

characteristics. When the union leaders came in to negotiate with Smith, he

would let them state their case fully and freely-without interruption, but

also without comment. When they had finished, he would say, "I'm sorry, We

can't do it." He would follow this blunt statement with a brief and

entirely cogent explanation of his reasons for refusal. If the union

leaders persisted in their arguments, Smith would paraphrase his first

statement, calmly and succinctly. In either case, the discussion was over

in a few minutes. The union leaders would storm out of Smith's office

complaining bitterly about the cold and heartless man with whom they had to

deal.

Jones handled the situation differently. His final conclusion was the

same as Smith's-but he would state it only after two or three hours of

discussion. Furthermore, Jones participated actively in these discussions,

questioning the union leaders for more information, relating the case in

question to previous cases, philosophizing about labor relations and human

rights and exchanging stories about work experience. When the discussion

came to an end, the union leaders would leave the office, commenting on how

warmhearted and understanding he was, and how confident they were that he

would help them when it was possible for him to do so, They actually seemed

more satisfied with a negative decision from Jones than they did with a

hard-won concession from Smith.

This was clearly a case where the personality of Jones happened to

match certain discernible requirements of the Latin American culture. It

was happenstance in this case that Jones worked out and Smith did not, for

by American standards both were top-flight men. Since a talent for the kind

of negotiation that the Latin American considers graceful and acceptable

can hardly be developed in a grown man (or perhaps even in a young one),

the basic problem is one of personnel selection in terms of the culture

where the candidate is to work.

The second case is more complicated because it involves much deeper

intercultural adjustments. The management of the parent V.S. company

concerned had learned-as have the directors of most large firms with good-

sized installations overseas-that one cannot afford to have all of the top

and middle-management positions manned by North Americans. It is necessary

to advance nationals up the overseas-management ladder as rapidly as their

abilities permit. So the nationals have to learn not only the technical

aspects of their jobs but also how to function at higher levels in the

organization.

Latin culture emphasizes authority in the home, church, and community.

Within the organization this produces a built-in hesitancy about speaking

up to one's superiors. The initiative, the acceptance of responsibility

which we value in our organizations had to be stimulated. How could it be

done?

We observed one management man who had done a remarkable job of

building up these very qualities in his general foremen and foremen. To

begin with, he stimulated informal contacts between himself and these men

through social events to which the men and their wives came. He saw to it

that his senior North American assistants and their wives were' also

present. Knowing the language, he mixed freely with all. At the plant, he

circulated about, dropped in not to inspect or check up, but to joke and to

break down the great barrier that existed in the local traditions between

authority and the subordinates.

Next, he developed a pattern of three-level meetings. At the top, he

himself, the superintendents, and the general foremen. At the middle level,

the superintendents, general foremen, and foremen. Then the general

foremen, foremen, and workers.

At the top level meeting, the American management chief set the

pattern of encouraging his subordinates to challenge his own ideas, to come

up with original thoughts. When his superintendents (also North Americans)

disagreed with him, he made it clear that they were to state their

objections fully. At first, the general foreman looked surprised and

uneasy. They noted, however, that the senior men who argued with the boss

were encouraged and praised. Timorously, with great hesitation, they began

to add their own suggestions. As time went on, they more and more accepted

the new convention and pitched in without inhibition.

The idea of challenging the boss with constructive new ideas gradually

filtered down to the second and third level meetings. It took a lot of time

and gentle handling, but .out of this approach grew an extraordinary

morale. The native general foremen and foremen developed new pride in

themselves, accepted new responsibilities, even reached out for more. They

began to work to improve their capacities and to look forward to moving up

in the hierarchy.

CUISINE, ETIQUETTE & CULTURAL VALUES

Also, it is necessary to note that food is one of the most enjoyable

ways to experience another culture.

WHAT'S A "STAPLE" FOOD?

Every culture has staple foods. A staple food is a food that is rich

in carbohydrates, that is eaten daily, and that is a primary source of

calories and life energy. Rice is the staple food of much of Asia: from

China & Japan to Sri Lanka & India. For example, many Japanese eat rice

three times a day — with breakfast, lunch and dinner. If there is no rice,

diners feel dissatisfied: the meal simply is not complete.

Cuisine and Etiquette in Zambia

In traditional families, mothers eat together with the girls and the

small boys. Boys age seven and older eat with the father. This is because

all of the children below the age of seven live under the guidance of their

mother and much learning takes place through daily activities in the home.

Ibis is changing, however, especially in towns and cities. The new trend1

is that all members of the family eat together.

Before eating, everybody washes hands in order of the status of the

members of the family: father first, then mother, and the children follow

according to their ages. If a visitor happens to have a meal with the

family, he or she is given the honor of washing first.

It is rude to talk very much or loudly while eating. After eating, the

family members wash their hands again in the same order. The wife and the

young ones clear the table. Burping after a meal is a traditional

compliment, but it is not quite so common nowadays.

Zambia's staple food is maize (corn), and the inhabitants eat maize in

several ways. When the corn is new, it can be roasted or boiled. When it is

dry, it can be fried or boiled, either by itself or mixed with beans or

peanuts. Sometimes maize is ground to a size a little bigger than rice and

is cooked like rice. Finally, we have the fine cornmeal which is called

mealie-meal in Zambia. This is used for making nsima, the most popular way

of cooking maize. Nsima is steamed cornmeal.

Meat from cows, goats, sheep, and fish are used in sauces over nsima.

There are also a lot of vegetables put in sauces, such as leaves from bean

plants, okra, peas and pumpkins. Other vegetables eaten almost daily

include onions and tomatoe. Nsima is usually prepared for lunch and dinner

and not for breakfast. All the cooking is done by the wife.

Cuisine & Etiquette in Uganda

In Uganda, the staple food is matoke (a variety of semi-sweet bananas

with green peels used in cooking). Other food crops include sweet potatoes

or yams, white potatoes, beans, peas, peanuts, cabbage, onions, pumpkins,

and tomatoes. Some fruits, such as oranges, papayas, lemons, and

pineapples, are also grown.

Most people, except for a few who live in the city centers, produce

their own food. The responsibility of preparing the family's meals belongs

solely to the women and the girls in the family. Men and boys of age 12 and

above are not even expected to sit in the kitchen, which is separate from

the main house.

Most families eat two meals a day. The two meals are lunch and supper.

Breakfast is just a cup of tea or a bowl of porridge.

When a meal is ready, all members of the household wash their hands

and sit down on floor mats. Hands have to be washed before and after the

meal. At mealtime everybody is welcome; visitors and neighbors who drop in

are expected to join the family at a meal.

Food is served by the women. "Sauce" — a stew with vegetables, beans,

butter, salt, and curry powder — is served to each person on a plate.

Sometimes fish or beef stew is served.

Normally a short prayer is said before the family starts eating.

During the meal, children talk only when asked a question. It is bad

manners to reach for salt or a spoon. It is better to ask someone sitting

close to it to pass it. It is also bad manners to leave the room while

others are still eating. Everyone respects the meal by staying seated until

the meal is over. Leaning on the left hand or stretching ones legs while at

a meal is a sign of disrespect and is not tolerated.

People usually drink water at the end of the meal. It is considered

odd to drink water while eating.

When the meal is finished, everyone in turn gives a compliment to the

mother by saying, "Thank you for preparing the meal, madam." No dessert is

served after the meal. Fruits like papaya, pineapple, or sweet bananas are

normally eaten as a snack between meals.

Cuisine & Etiquette in Sierra Leone

In Sierra Leone, the staple food is rice. "If I haven't had my rice, I

haven't really eaten today," is a popular saying of this people. They eat

rice at least twice a day. Only women and girls prepare the food.

If you visit a there friend, he or she will almost always invite you

to stay and eat. Sharing is an important part of life in Sierra Leone!

Everyone washes their hands before they eat, and then they gather in a

circle with a huge dish of food placed in the middle.

The oldest males get the choicest food, the best pieces of meat or

fish. Then the young males take the next best pieces, and then finally the

women and girls get any meat or fish that is left. Sometimes the women and

girls wait until the men and boys have had all they want before they eat.

Rice is eaten with the hands by squeezing or rolling it into a ball,

dipping it into the sauce, and then popping it into the mouth. When

everyone finishes eating, they wash their hands and thank the cook.

When you are eating, you usually don't talk. Talking shows a lack of

respect for the food. It is rude to lean on your left hand while you are

eating. People usually drink water only after a meal is over.

Many ingredients go into sauces or stews to go with rice. The most

popular sauces are made of greens. Other common ingredients include palm

oil, onions, tomatoes, yams, and red peppers. Sometimes peanut oil or

coconut oil are used. Sources of protein that go into the sauces include

peanuts and beans, as well as fish, chicken, goat meat, or pork. Seafood,

such as oysters, lobster, and crab, may also be used. Most of the calories,

however, come from rice, which is eaten in large quantities.

Fruits include oranges, bananas, papayas, lemons, avocados,

watermelon, mangoes, and pineapples. Fruit is usually eaten as a snack.

Plantains (cooking bananas) are sometimes sliced and fried as chips for a

snack. Tea and coffee are drunk in some parts of the country for breakfast.

Coke and beer are popular with people who can afford them.

PATTERNS OF SPEECH

A language is more than the sum of its words, its grammar, and the

expressive quality of its melody.

Language =Words+ Grammar + Melody + "?"

Every cultural group has unique patterns of speech — patterns for

doing things like giving and responding to compliments, saying no, and

forming business relationships. And even the most elementary of speech acts

— the greeting — is more complex than you might think!

THE U.S.A

Many visitors to the United States are perplexed every time an

American flashes one of those famous smiles, looks you straight in the eye,

exclaims "How are you?" —and then disappears without waiting to hear a

word. These visitors must feel like Alice in Wonderland, trying to

communicate with the White Rabbit. That's because they are taking the

question "How are you?" literally, as a request for information about ones

health and well-being. "How are you?" (when said in passing or as part of

an everyday greeting) may be a question according to the rules of grammar,

but in practice it is not a question at all! It is a friendly and polite

greeting. No one expects to give or hear a long answer. A one or two word

answer will do. In fact, it's considered rude to tell a long story.

When Americans are not simply greeting you and truly want to know how

you are, they may put a small emphasis on the word "are." How ARE you? Or,

to make the message absolutely clear, they might say "How ARE you, REALLY?"

Then you can tell a very long story indeed.

MOROCCO

In Moroccan Arabic, people greet each other with the words "Salaam Oo-

allay-kum." Ibis greeting means "Peace be with you." The response is "Oo-

allay-kum salaam" — "And with you peace." But the greeting does not end

there! Greetings in Morocco may continue for many minutes - sometimes as

long as half an hour — as people ask about each other's health, faith in

Allah, families, work, etc.

Moroccans shake hands when greeting, touching the heart immediately

after the handshake to show that the greeting is sincere. Sometimes instead

of touching the heart, they will kiss their own hand after the handshake as

a sign of particular esteem or affection. In the case of family members or

close friends, women greeting women and men greeting men will kiss each

other's cheeks back and forth a few times. In the north, it's right cheek-

left cheek-left cheek. In other parts of the country, it could be right-

left-right, or right-left only. How many times you kiss cheeks also depends

on how much you like the person, or how long it's been since you've seen

them. The longer it's been, the more kisses are exchanged.

4.CONTRAST RUSSIAN’S STEREOTYPES

A stereotype is a statement that simplifies human and social

realities. For example, a single quality is said to belong to every member

of a group: "Men hate to cook."

Prejudice is to prejudge: to form an opinion, usually negative, about

someone before you know many facts. "Richard can't cook - he's a guy!" If

you have seen the film Shrek, about an ogre who falls in love with a

princess, you may remember Shrek's lament — his sad complaint that "They

judge me before they even know me!"

Stereotypes and prejudice are based on incomplete or faulty

information. They get in the way of knowing people as individuals and of

understanding the world in a complex and sophisticated way; they can offend

& hurt people; and they can lead to serious misunderstandings.

NINE STATEMENTS ABOUT RUSSIA

The nine comments a non-Russian might make about Russians:

1. Russians are dreamers and not doers.

2. Russians are not materialistic. They consider other people more

important than what you can buy.

3. Russians value familiar faces and distrusts those they do not

know.

4. There is a right and a wrong way to do almost anything, and

Russians will not hesitate to tell you when you are doing something wrong —

or "nyekulturno."

5. Russians don't think about the future — they don't plan far

ahead. If they have money today, they spend money today.

6. Russians are certain that they are right, they know everything &

they have all the answers.

7. Russians are fatalistic — they feel nothing they can do will

make a difference.

8. Russians disapprove of people who are different or who break

social conventions (like Tattoo).

9. Russians are "lazy" — if you don't tell them what to do and

supervise them carefully they will do as little as possible or nothing at

all.

If we can understand what lies behind the stereotypes, we are able to

politely challenge or correct others' misperceptions if we so choose. We

all stereotype others sometimes

—and it can be a shock to hear about how others stereotype us. Just

think of a time you have stereotyped someone, as we all have, and imagine

their reaction if they heard your words!

For an explanation of each of the nine notions, we shall learn some

reasons that some observers and scholars might give as to why Russians may

appear to others the way they do.

1. As a general rule Americans are oriented towards doing. They

measure their own value, and that of others, by what & how much they do.

Ideas are not valued as highly as the practical application of ideas and

results. Russians are more oriented towards contemplating ideas and valuing

ideas in and of themselves. A Russian who attended an American/Russian

conference described the different ways each group would spend conference

evenings. "The Russians would sit all night drinking tea, discussing and

reflecting upon the events and ideas of the day, while the Americans would

be dunking of what they had to do the next day and preparing for it."

2. "It's better to have 100 friends than 100 rubles." Russians have

very close bonds with and depend upon a close network of friends, family

and familiar faces — people they know they can trust. Government, banks, &

bureaucracies are not trusted or depended upon. Friends, however, can trust

each other and depend upon one other.

3. Again, many Russians belong to close-knit groups of family &

friends. Within these groups, there is great trust and a strong sense of

closeness — however strangers and outsiders are not immediately trusted and

are kept at a greater social and emotional distance.

4. Russian culture, more than many others, emphasizes clear

cultural norms, rules and scripts (what people should say). Many Russians

expect others to conform to these social or cultural rules and freely

correct those who "stray." They may feel that they are being helpful and

saving others from future trouble or embarrassment

5. Russians may believe that planning for the future and living for

tomorrow is sinful and contradicts Christian teachings. One Russian student

quoted the Bible as proof that this belief is sacred: "Now listen to me,

you that say, 'today or tomorrow we will travel to a certain city, where we

will stay a year and go into business and make a lot of money.' You don't

even know what your life tomorrow will be! You are like a puff of smoke,

which appears for a moment and then disappears." Making the most of each

day, living 'it to the fullest, and facing only the hardships of the

current day are valued.

Many Russians appear to prefer a consensus on truth to a plurality of

opinions or truths. Some writers trace this preference to the early Russian

Empire - when Russia was "ruled by an autocratic dynasty with a holy

mission to defend its faith against the barbarians of the East and the

heresies and pluralism of the West" "The pluralism of the West was seen by

Russia as chaotic, without harmony, a disunity or thought and purpose."

Historically, Russia has held to a vision of a single, unifying truth — the

truth as told by the Communist party and Communist ideology; or a Russian

Orthodox vision of an absolute truth with no room for conflicting opinions.

Russian Orthodoxy, according to one writer, was envisioned as "a fellowship

uniting all souls under a single and correct religious rite" actively

agreed upon and shared by all. The faithful were envisioned as members of

one big family - just as the 15 Soviet republics were envisioned as

"sisters."

7. It is a general Russian cultural belief that people cannot

necessarily or easily change things or influence events. The goal is to be

patient & persevere. Some writers say this may be because of the physical

hardships of Russian life — from the long winters to shortages of goods.

8. Again, Russians appear to prefer dear cultural norms and rules

and to easily judge and criticize those who break them.

9. Russian workers and Russian students appear to prefer detailed

and precise instructions from supervisors or teachers. Decisions about what

should be done, and how, appear to be made at the top. Supervisors/teachers

appear to know best. People may prefer to follow clear directions from

above rather than risk errors or innovations that may harm their careers.

MIDDLE EASTERN INTERVIEW RESPONSES

When your first arrived in Russia, what stood out the most?

. The forests, the vast number of green trees I saw from the

airplane window.

. It was my dream to study in Russia. It's a great country and

there are many opportunities for study. I love the writings of

Gorky, and through reading Gorky I got the impression that

Russians are clever and patient- it's a great country, as great

as the US.

What stereotypes did you hear about Russians before coming to

Russia?

. People are poor. They have to wait in line for bread.

. It's liked a military zone, closed to most people.

. People are hospitable. You can knock on your neighbor's door.

There is brotherly love.

What stereotypes do Russians have of your part of the world?

. Everyone is very rich. There is lots of oil. (They don't

differentiate among countries).

. Women wear veils.

. People ride camels.

. Men marry four or five women.

. Everyone is Muslim. (They don't know about other religions).

. They don't know our history.

. Terrorists

. Not much knowledge, they only know the name Arafat.

Russian perceptions of Arabs/Southerners

. Southerners are called "black." There is discrimination based

on skin color. There are unpleasant encounters on the street.

Many international students have been assaulted. Flats have

been broken into. Almost everyone has been assaulted,

especially in bars, nightclubs, and discos. Students go out in

groups for safety in numbers.

. One student had two brothers who came to Russia. One brother

was beaten and had a severe head injury. Another had a leg

broken.

. Some babushki yell "Chechens go home!" One interviewee says

that he doesn't pay attention- he understands that they are old

and he understands the psychological reasons. Another says they

have no right to say those things. We are students here. We

have come here for our education. We are spending money and

adding to the Russian economy. We are not troubling anyone.

. Overall crime rate is high, but foreigners are particularly

victimized. There is no police protection. There seems to be no

law. There are police document checks and bribes. There has

been a big change in the past ten years. Now there is more

economic disorder, corruption, violence, and crime.

Why Questions

Why are women streetcar drivers? Why do they do manual and construction

work?

. Why are young Russians rude to older people?

. Why don't young men don't give up seats on the trolley bus for

elders?

. Why do young people sometimes yell or shout bad words at old

women?

Your Perceptions of Russia and Russians Now

. The people are friendly and sympathetic. Teachers are friendly

and sympathetic. Sympathy is the key to understanding.

. Russian women are very beautiful. They are patient, they work

hard, they are good housewives, they are always loyal, and they

dress nicely.

. There are a high number of educated people, especially in the

sciences. They are able to work under difficult conditions.

It's a wonder. It's not about equipment. That's Russia's

secret.

Major differences between cultures

. Alcohol — many Muslims do not drink.

. Families at home are bigger —5-10 people

. In Russia, people don't know their neighbors' names. They don't

greet each other on the street and communicate.

. Clothes — women dress more modestly than Russian women.

. Women don't smoke, drink, or dress revealingly as they do in

Russia.

. Families support each other more. Brothers and sisters support

each other. Russian families seem more isolated and

individualistic.

. The divorce rate at home is very low.

. Men respect women more at home, there is not so much domestic

violence as in Russia.

5. AMERICAN’S VIEW OF RUSSIANS

RUSSIAN’S VIEW OF AMERICANS

AMERICAN INTERVIEW RESPONSES

When you first arrived in Russia, what stood out the most?

. People are very thin.

. How many people actually walk. There are lots of cars and good

public transportation, but there are lots of pedestrians too.

. How dirty the cities are. I knew they would look a little run

down, but there's more litter and trash than at home.

. People don't smile.

. Russians are not materialistic. They consider other people more

important than what you can buy.

. To some degree, they are less culturally aware. Russia was

dosed off to the rest of the world and Russians are not used to

seeing people of color.

. Men with machine guns at the airport A woman with big, black

poufy hair, a frilly white blouse, an army-issue green mini-

skirt, black stiletto heels, frosty pink lipstick and a scowl

It was like a scene from a John Waters movie.

. In 1978 I arrived in St. Petersburg from Sweden. It was like

going from color to black and white. There were shortages of

food. It was drab; it was dark. I came back in 1998. Ibis time

I noticed a washed-out drabness. People wore dark clothes, not

much color. There were things to buy in the shops this time,

but somehow everything looked faded. The communist experience

was unique. The whole world moved on, and Russia was closed

off. There are some good things and some bad things in this. It

was like being dropped off in the 1950s, when I was a child.

There was still not much tourism, but the attitudes of people

changed. This first time it was less friendly, people spoke

less English, and there were millions of forms to fill out,

scattered all over the place. You had to be precise, because

the authorities were hypervigilant.

. Crazy drivers everywhere, incredibly long waits for trams and

buses, no timetables for buses and trams, people going out of

their way to help you find a destination

Stereotypes You Were Aware of Before Coming to Russia

. Lines everywhere (though I knew it was thing of the past)

. No freedom of speech

. Few products

. Pervasive presence of Mafia

. Young people getting rich very quickly

. Prostitution (from news exposes about dark side of big city

life)

. Prejudice against people of Southern nationalities

. Russians drink vodka

. Russians are poor, suffered a lot, are very serious, have bread

tones

. Never smile

. Bureaucracy is infamous

. Churches with onion domes, great literature

. Russian women dress up, but it doesn't matter so much what men

wear.

. Every woman is looking to marry an American, there are mail

order brides, women want to get out

. I remember bomb scares in American during the 50s and 60s and

hiding under desks. The Russians wanted to come and

conquer the USA, we were told. They had the same message as us.

. Russians tend to be paranoid.

. Russians don't think in or about the future. Americans think

about the future, but not the past or present. Americans

pay for classes so they can learn to live in the present!

Russians don't plan so far ahead. If they have money today,

they

spend money today.

. Russians are quite rigid about teachers being authoritative and

strong disciplinarians.

Advice family & friends gave you before you left home

. Don't drink tap water.

. Advice to women: be prepared that girls here dress differently:

Russians dress for fashion and Americans for comfort

. Be careful, you can't trust people there.

. Be careful. Russia is not safe because of worries about war,

bombings in Moscow, unrest, crime, civil strife. General

danger.

. Bring toilet paper and jeans. You can sell your jeans.

. You need to have good health insurance and be prepared to fly

back to the US if you need treatment Hospitals are bad and

doctors aren't very good. In fact, doctors run the gamut from

very dedicated to indifferent.

Why questions

. Why is shopping a three step process? It's so inefficient.

Maybe it prevents shoplifting.

. Why is only one person doling out money?

. Why is only one door open?

. Why is service so bad? Is it because there is no tipping and so

no motivation?

. Why can we sit in a cafe all day without buying very much?

. Why do women wear such high heels?

. Why do people crowd others and cut in line?

. Why do shop attendants go on so many breaks or just close down?

. Why are things so unpredictable? Nothing is consistent.

. There are no schedules at school. I arrive at school to teach

and I'll be told "there is no fourth grade today." Why can't

people tell me in advance?

. Why are restaurant workers so indifferent or outright rude?

. Why do Russian women think they need a man for anything

technical or physical?

. Why must everyone sit at a party?

. Why can't people put bags on the floor?

. Why do men carry purses (for women)?

. Who does everything break so easily?

. Why does everything need to be stamped?

. Why are there so many forms?

. Why do women dress like hookers (prostitutes)?

. Why do women wear see-through trousers with thongs and stiletto

heels?

. Why is everything so dirty?

. Why do people spit and blow their noses onto the street?

. Why are people so mean to each other (at stores, yelling at

customers)?

. Why do people push in front of others?

. When a husband beats his wife in public, why doesn't anyone do

anything? Why are people so reluctant to stop and help?

. Why are there no public toilets even approaching American

standards? Why do people accept such things?

. Why do toilets have no seat covers? Is there a shortage? Can't

they find them somewhere?

. Why do Russians drink so much tea? Why don't they drink during

meals?

. Why do Americans say "excuse me1 when they bump into strangers

and Russian don't?

. Why are Russians so formal when you first meet them?

Things that frustrate

. People always on the make

. Large injustices in society, for example, why are teachers paid

so little and then expected to buy their own textbooks

. I'm annoyed at people looking and making an instant judgment

. Russians are emotional, prejudiced and xenophobic.

. The Russian sense of personal space, especially in public

sphere: people stand much closer, pressing up against each

other, pushing

Why questions Russians asked you about Americans

. Why do you want to come to Russia? (most consistent question)

. Why are Americans fat? Why do they all have cars? Why are they

so loud?

. Why do Americans drink so much water?

. How can you believe men and women are equal when they are so

different?

. Why don't Americans lock their doors at night?

. Why do Americans smell like soap? - What interviewee's mother

taught him: "If your clothes smell like you, they're dirty."

. Why do Americans smile all the time?

. Why are Americans so informal about everything?

. Why do Americans ask so many questions?

. Why don't you speak English correctly? It's your native

language, isn't it?

Stereotypes Russians You Met Had of Americans

. Americans are rich. "You can afford to pay that price, that's

nothing for you at home!"

. Americans have cars — are fat - are loud.

. Americans are rich, noisy, lazy, and unworldly.

. Americans always smile.

. All American women hate men.

. American women are drab, dull and unfeminine.

. American women want to do everything themselves.

. American women are ambitious and individualistic.

. American women are not afraid to speak their minds or confront

authority.

How are Americans viewed?

. Russians are accepting of American music, movies, and clothing

but still have anti-American sentiments. It's a kind of guilty

pleasure - a sense they are letting themselves, their roots,

and their standards down. They accept American cultural

products while remaining anti-American.

. They think we're rich; even our poor, compared to their poor.

Retirees on cruises set this stereotype, with Russians

misunderstanding that some people must save for a long time for

such a trip. Also, Russians on exchange programs stay with

middle-class, educated families. They don't see American

ghettos.

How has living abroad changed your original view or expectations about what

life in Russia would be like?

. Some stereotypes were borne out. People can be very rude in the

public sphere— in restaurants, airports, trains. On the other

hand, if you're invited to people's homes you'll find they're

the most hospitable people you've ever met. I didn't expect

warm hospitality though I was prepared for inhospitality in the

public sphere.

. I tend to try not to have too many set expectations before I go

to a different culture. Sure, I have some, but part of the

experience is seeing what is there and seeing how you can adapt

to these circumstances.

Gestures that are different, etc.

. I always speak with my hands and show facial gestures. Most

people here don't gesture much when they speak. Ibis is true of

facial gestures too. My face always betrays my feelings.

. The Russian gesture for being drunk.

. Helping women put their coat on; other women can't do this.

. Men NEED to carry things and pay. I met a male friend at a

cafe, and he HAD to pay, to be a gentleman, even though I know

he doesn't earn a lot of money. No Dutch treat.

. The weight of swear words is stronger here than in the US. In

the States I use obscenities every day. Now that I'm here, I

use them maybe once a month.

. Banging the fist again the palm

. Thumb between the middle and index fingers

. Touching: there's more same sex touching in Russia, women

walking down the street arm in arm or holding hands

. Shaking hands is not common practice in Russia where it is

automatic and unconscious behavior for most Americans. (Said by

a woman)

What are the most positive things that happened to you in Russia?

. I met my wife and made some very close friends from another

culture. Human contact. You realize you can make close friends

and find similarities. I also improved my Russian.

. I had an opportunity to live with a family and be included in

family life- crises and arguments included. I really

experienced normal Russian life in more depth than many.

. Positive things: meeting very friendly people/ hospitality and

the nurturing manner of Russian women. The sincerity I

-have felt from the sympathy expressed by Russians about the

attacks in the U.S.

What is the worst thing that happened to you?

. The first week I was living in my flat, and felt like a

stranger in my landlady's home, my landlady and her husband

would share nothing with me. I had to buy my own dish washing

liquid and toilet paper. They would not allow me to wash my own

clothes and wanted to charge me 20 rubles per shin. (While this

may not be typical, this incident it is a true story.)

. In St Petersburg, I got ripped off. 60 or 70 dollars in a money

exchange on the street It can happen anywhere, though, and it

didn't change my feelings; but there are nasty rip-offs in St

Petersburg and Moscow.

. Negative things: indifference to issues of lateness and when

things don't work or something goes wrong. How things tend to

be more black / white or how things are taken more literally.

How certain some Russians are about certain issues.

If you were to compare Russian and American culture, what are some of the

broad distinctions you might draw?

. Economics. In the US everything is about money. Sometimes

Russians are very concerned about money and talk about money

because it's a necessity. They have no qualms about asking how

much money you make. That's a taboo question in the States.

. Russians are more traditional, especially the way women want to

be treated by men. Feminism doesn't seem to exist. (Said by a

man)

. Russians drink more. There are few laws about drinking in

public. You can drink beer in public but not vodka. It's

strange, in the springtime, to be the only sober person walking

down the street.

. Russians are less tolerant of racial differences and of sexual

orientation. Russian men are very homophobic.

. There is no one word or phrase for "cultural identity," vanity,

or privacy in Russian language; you would have to explain your

intention in order to be understood.

Can you describe some situations/incidents in which cultural expectations

caused a misunderstanding?

. American men are not expected to be as attentive as Russian

men. Men pour drinks for women, carry packages for women, etc.

. If I'm silent, people see me as standoffish.

. Americans separate business and pleasure

By living in Russia, have you learned anything new about yourself and your

native culture?

. I learned a lot of about myself as an American. There are some

things I feel proud about. I stopped taking things for granted,

things I would have demanded in the past.

. I value independence and self-reliance.

. I notice consumerism in the US more. Everything is packaged,

everything is for sale. There's more media and advertising

everywhere. People need things NOW: fast food, quick and

efficient customer service.

. Shallow, superficial friendliness and customer service. But I

like it anyway! Maybe it's not so shallow. Maybe it says

something about egalitarianism.

. The number of trashcans and the amount of waste produced in the

US. In Russia there's no place to put trash and there are lots

of wrappers and litter on the streets. In America there ate

lots of receptacles because we produce lots of waste

-packaging, wrappers, etc. We even sell special 10-gallon trash

bags!

. The main thing I noticed and was overwhelmed by was by the

amount of choice in everything- it was great but too much to

handle sometimes, whether I was shopping or trying to decide

what to eat in a restaurant.

. I can live in an arctic climate but I'm still not a fan of long

winters.

. Americans value individualism and the right to speak their

minds freely

. Some Americans can be as ethnocentric as some Russians can be

and more concerned with events at home, but what culture isn't?

RUSSIAN INTERVIEW RESPONSES

When you first arrived in the USA, what stood out?

. The traffic system is orderly and well organized. Drivers are

polite and stop for pedestrians.

. How Americans are relaxed, they have a relaxed posture, free

behavior, a relaxed way of dressing, usually sports clothes

. Aged parents very seldom live with their grown children and

prefer living alone or moving to a nursing home

. Americans prefer to live in suburbs in their own houses and

thus a car play a very important role in one's life and there

might be several cars in the family

. They use computers a lot in everyday life

Stereotypes of Americans You Were Aware Of

. Pragmatic

. Rich

. Overweight

. Always smile

. Body conscious and fond of healthy life styles

. American women are too independent

How do you think Americans viewed Russian culture, in general terms?

. As far as I remember, everyone I met was very friendly,

considerate and helpful and eager to get to know Russians

better and learn more about our culture.

Advice friends or family members gave you

. To find some things they wanted

. To set up an aim you want to achieve in this country and to do

it. For example, to visit all the museums.

. Try to make new friends and make the most of your stay

. My mother told me to try every kind of food I can

Why questions you asked

. Why do Americans love their cars so much?

. Why do they never dress up?

. Why do they mingle at parties? Why do they invite so many

people?

. Why do they leave their nests? Why do they so often change

cities?

. Why are university professors so informally dressed in class?

. Why do children prefer to live separately from parents when

they complete high school and almost never come back to

live with the parents again?

Why questions others asked you

. Why do Russians stay at one place (at a table) at a party?

. Why do Russians have more long lasting friendships?

. Why do you prefer jeanswear: is it because you like American

style clothing or do you find this kind of clothing more

comfortable?

. Do people in Russia know foreign languages?

Stereotypes of Russians You Discovered

. Russians are poor.

. Russians dance very well. They like to dance.

. There is Mafia in Russia.

. Russian women do a lot of work at home.

. Russians don't know how to work.

. Russian women do too much work for the family. They do not

respect themselves.

. Russians are strong and hard working.

. The new generation will change the country.

. Russians don't know foreign languages.

. Starving and wearing shabby clothing

. Russians don't smile on the street.

. One young American guy mentioned he wouldn't be interested in

meeting a Russian woman because Russian women are

hairy and don't shave.

. There are few cars in Russia.

. All women are prostitutes because that's the only way to earn a

living.

How has your experience changed your original view or expectations?

I don't think Americans are rich. They get more money but they

economize and spend more rationally.

If you were to compare Russian and American culture, what are some of the

broad distinctions you might draw?

. Russian culture belongs to the eastern type and American to the

western type.

. Americans are more matter-of-fact and business-like; they are

more active; they are not afraid of making severe life changes.

Can you describe some situations/incidents in which cultural expectations

caused a misunderstanding?

. When you are in Russia, invited to someone's home, you are

asked to have tea or some food. In America this does not happen

in every house.

What things stood out the most or what things did you most notice about

Russia when you returned home?

. The one thing that pleased me is that my family was so glad to

see me.

. People not smiling. Not helpful.

. Gloomy people on the streets; impolite shop assistants; dirty

public places; no adaptation of public places for disabled

. People are less polite; there is garbage everywhere; there are

no non-smoking areas

By visiting the USA, have you learned anything new about yourself and your

native culture?

. Russians are hospitable, collective. They discuss things in

groups before making decisions. They are always ready to share.

. Russians are more family oriented.

. I learned that I should not feel inferior to other people

because of being physically disabled.

. Being in the US I am conscious of being Russian and proud of

it. I don't that I stand out in American culture and most

Americans can't say I am from a different country unless I tell

them, but somehow I always "feel" Russian and tell people I am

from Russia with a sense of pride.

CONCLUSION

Let's sum up everything considered above.

Now there is a problem of misunderstanding among people of the

different countries. This misunderstanding is shown owing to different

attitudes to life, to business, to family, to fellow workers. Also because

of ignorance of traditions, customs, etiquette of other countries.

Excellent knowledge of foreign language is not a guarantee of

successful cooperation of firms or pleasant dialogue of people from

different continents. To know language is only half-affair. The most

important is to understand priorities of other people, to try to look at

the world by their eyes.

If the country is more advanced in economic, political, social

spheres, it gives more attention to studying other cultures for successful

cooperation (for example, the USA, Japan).

It is important to note, that the closer cultures to each other, the

fewer problems arise at their interaction. If cultures are opposite, then

the essence of intercultural dialogue is reduced to understanding of

different values.

For greater success in relations between the countries it is necessary

to take into account all these features.

LITERATURE:

1. «Communication and Culture» / Alfred G. Smith // Hold,

Rinehart and Winston, Inc., the United States of America,1966

2. «Crossing Cultural Borders - Russia» / Julie E. Zdanoski //

Petrozavodsk, 2003

3. «Culture Learning: The Fifth Dimension in the Language

Classroom» / Louise Damen

4. «Culture Matters. How Values Shape Human Progress» / Lawrence

E. Harrison, Samuel P. Huntington // Basic Books, A Member of

the Perseus Books Group, the United States of America, 2000

APPENDIX

A CULTURAL MODEL OF INTERACTION

When a person from a national society with hierarchical tendencies

encounters a person from a society with egalitarian tendencies, and

moreover when the country of the latter is generally "high" in the

estimation of the former, the idealized paradigm as shown in Figure 1 would

be approximated. In this diagram, X, the person from a country with

egalitarian views, behaves toward Y, the person from a hierarchically

oriented country, as if he occupied the same "level"; that is, in

equalitarian terms.

[pic]

Figure 1.

TABLE 1. SOME IMPLICIT CULTURAL ASSUMPTIONS

North American (USA)

Personal control of the environment

Change inevitable and desirable

Equality of opportunity

Individualism

Future orientation

Action orientation

Directness and openness

Practicality; pragmatic; rational

Problem-solving orientation

Cause-and-effect logic

Informality

Competition

DO-it-yourself approach to life

Contrast American

Nature dominating man

Unchanging; traditional

Class structure dominant; hierarchical Interdependence but individuality

Present or past orientation

Being orientation

Suggestive; consensus-seeking; group orientation

Feeling orientation; philosophical

Inactive; enduring; seeking help from others Knowing

Formality

Group progress

Intermediaries

TABLE 2 VALUE ASSUMPTIONS OF EAST AND WEST: JAPAN AND THE UNATED STATES

Values concerning

1. Nature and Culture vertically

(octopus pot)(draws in)

(outside/inside)

2. Interpersonal Relationships

Unated States

Heterogeneity; horizontal society guilt sasara (bamboo wisk)

Doing

Pusning

Omote predominates

Independence; I/you clash symmetrical relationships informality

Achieved status

Japan

Homogeneity; shame takotsubo

Being

Pulling

Omote/ura

We over I; amae complementary

Ascribed status

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