BRITISH MONARCHY AND ITS INFLUENCE UPON GOVERNMENTAL INSTITUTIONS

church charter of 934 described him as 'King of the English, elevated by

the right hand of the Almighty ... to the Throne of the whole Kingdom of

Britain'. Athelstan died childless.

EDMUND I (939-46)

Son of Edward the Elder, succeeded his half-brother, Жthelstan, with whom

he had fought at Brunanburh. Combated the Norse Vikings in Northumbria and

subdued them in Cumbria and Strathclyde. He entrusted these lands to an

ally, Malcolm I of Scotland. Edmund met his death when he was killed at

Pucklechurch, in Gloucestershire, by a robber.

EADRED (946-55)

King of Wessex and acknowledged as overlord of Mercia, the Danelaw and

Northumbria. A challenge to Eadred, which serves to illustrate one of his

chief qualities, developed in the north, in the early 950's. Eric Bloodaxe,

an aptly named, ferocious, Norse Viking who had been deposed by his own

people, established himself as king of Northumbria at York, apparently with

the fearful acquiescence of the Northumbrians. Eadred responded by marching

north with a considerable force to meet the threat. He proceeded to ravage

the Norse-held territories, then moved back to the south. He was attacked

on the way home by Eric's forces. Eadred was so enraged that he threatened

to go back to Northumbria and ravage the entire land.

This prospect frightened the already frightened Northumbrians into

abandoning Eric Bloodaxe. It must be that they viewed Eadred as more

formidable than a bloodthirsty Viking, who had been thrown out of a society

known for its bloodthirstiness, because he was too bloodthirsty and

tyrannical for them. In any case, according to the "AngloSaxon Chronicle",

"the Northumbrians expelled Eric."

As to his personal side, William of Malmesbury provides some

illumination. He says that Eadred was afflicted with some lingering

physical malady, since he was, "constantly oppressed by sickness, and of so

weak a digestion as to be unable to swallow more than the juices of the

food he had masticated, to the great annoyance of his guests." Regarding

his spiritual side, apparently the pillaging, ravaging and laying waste

that he did, had no deleterious effects on him. As Malmesbury states, he

devoted his life to God, "endured with patience his frequent bodily pains,

prolonged his prayers and made his palace altogether the school of virtue."

He died while still a young man, as had so many of the kings of Wessex,

"accompanied with the utmost grief of men but joy of angels."

EADWIG (EDWY) (955-59 AD)

On the death of Eadred, who had no children, Eadwig was chosen to be king

since he was the oldest of the children in the natural line of the House of

Wessex. He became king at 16 and displayed some of the tendencies one could

expect in one so young, royalty or not. Historians have not treated Eadwig

especially well, and it is unfortunate for him that he ran afoul of the

influential Bishop Dunstan (friend and advisor to the recently deceased

king, Eadred, future Archbishop of Canterbury and future saint), early in

his reign. An incident, which occurred on the day of Eadwig's consecration

as king, purportedly, illustrates the character of the young king.

According to the report of the reliable William of Malmesbury, all the

dignitaries and officials of the kingdom were meeting to discuss state

business, when the absence of the new king was noticed. Dunstan was

dispatched, along with another bishop, to find the missing youth. He was

found with his mind on matters other than those of state, in the company of

the daughter of a noble woman of the kingdom. Malmesbury writes, Dunstan, "

regardless of the royal indignation, dragged the lascivious boy from the

chamber and...compelling him to repudiate the strumpet made him his enemy

forever." The record of this incident was picked up by future monastic

chroniclers and made to be the definitive word on the character of Eadwig,

mainly because of St. Dunstan's role in it.

Dunstan was, after that incident, never exactly a favorite of Eadwig's,

and it may be fair to say that Eadwig even hated Dunstan, for he apparently

exiled him soon after this. Eadwig went on to marry Жlgifu, the girl with

whom he was keeping company at the time of Dunstan's intrusion. For her

part, "the strumpet" was eventually referred to as among "the most

illustrious of women", and Eadwig, in his short reign, was generous in

making grants to the church and other religious institutions. He died,

possibly of the Wessex family ailment, when he was only 20.

EDGAR (959-975)

Edgar, king in Mercia and the Danelaw from 957, succeeded his brother as

king of the English on Edwy's death in 959 - a death which probably

prevented civil war breaking out between the two brothers. Edgar was a firm

and capable ruler whose power was acknowledged by other rulers in Britain,

as well as by Welsh and Scottish kings. Edgar's late coronation in 973 at

Bath was the first to be recorded in some detail; his queen Aelfthryth was

the first consort to be crowned queen of England.

Edgar was the patron of a great monastic revival which owed much to his

association with Archbishop Dunstan. New bishoprics were created,

Benedictine monasteries were reformed and old monastic sites were re-

endowed with royal grants, some of which were of land recovered from the

Vikings.

In the 970s and in the absence of Viking attacks, Edgar - a stern judge -

issued laws which for the first time dealt with Northumbria (parts of which

were in the Danelaw) as well as Wessex and Mercia. Edgar's coinage was

uniform throughout the kingdom. A more united kingdom based on royal

justice and order was emerging; the Monastic Agreement (c.970) praised

Edgar as 'the glorious, by the grace of Christ illustrious king of the

English and of the other peoples dwelling within the bounds of the island

of Britain'. After his death on 8 July 975, Edgar was buried at Glastonbury

Abbey, Somerset.

EDWARD II «THE MARTYR» (975-979)

The sudden death of Edgar at the age of 33 led to a succession dispute

between rival factions supporting his sons Edward and Ethelred. The elder

son Edward was murdered in 978 at Corfe Castle, Dorset, by his seven-year-

old half-brother's supporters.

ETHELRED II «THE UNREADY» (979-1013 AND 1014-1016)

Ethelred, the younger son of Edgar, became king at the age of seven

following the murder of his half-brother Edward II in 978 at Corfe Castle,

Dorset, by Edward's own supporters.

For the rest of Ethelred's rule (reigned 978-1016), his brother became a

posthumous rallying point for political unrest; a hostile Church

transformed Edward into a royal martyr. Known as the Un-raed or 'Unready'

(meaning 'no counsel', or that he was unwise), Ethelred failed to win or

retain the allegiance of many of his subjects. In 1002, he ordered the

massacre of all Danes in England to eliminate potential treachery.

Not being an able soldier, Ethelred defended the country against

increasingly rapacious Viking raids from the 980s onwards by diplomatic

alliance with the duke of Normandy in 991 (he later married the duke's

daughter Emma) and by buying off renewed attacks by the Danes with money

levied through a tax called the Danegeld. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 1006

was dismissive: 'in spite of it all, the Danish army went about as it

pleased'. By 1012, 48,000 pounds of silver was being paid in Danegeld to

Danes camped in London.

In 1013, Ethelred fled to Normandy when the powerful Viking Sweyn of

Denmark dispossessed him. Ethelred returned to rule after Sweyn's death in

1014, but died himself in 1016.

SWEYN (1013-1014)

The son of a Danish king, Sweyn 'Forkbeard' began conquering territory in

England in 1003, effectively devastating much of southern and midland

England. The English nobility became so disillusioned with their existing

king, Ethelred 'The Unready', that they acknowledged Sweyn as king in 1013.

Sweyn's reign was short, as he died in 1014, but his son Canute the Great

soon returned and reclaimed control of England.

EDMUND II, IRONSIDE (1016)

Edmund was King of England for only a few months. After the death of his

father, Жthelred II, in April 1016, Edmund led the defense of the city of

London against the invading Knut Sveinsson (Canute), and was proclaimed

king by the Londoners. Meanwhile, the Witan (Council), meeting at

Southampton, chose Canute as King. After a series of inconclusive military

engagements, in which Edmund performed brilliantly and earned the nickname

"Ironside", he defeated the Danish forces at Oxford, Kent, but was routed

by Canute's forces at Ashingdon, Essex. A subsequent peace agreement was

made, with Edmund controlling Wessex and Canute controlling Mercia and

Northumbria. It was also agreed that whoever survived the other would take

control of the whole realm. Unfortunately for Edmund, he died in November,

1016, transferring the Kingship of All England completely to Canute.

CANUTE «THE GREAT» (1016-1035)

Son of Sweyn, Canute became undisputed King of England in 1016, and his

rivals (Ethelred's surviving sons and Edmund's son) fled abroad. In 1018,

the last Danegeld of 82,500 pounds was paid to Canute. Ruthless but

capable, Canute consolidated his position by marrying Ethelred's widow Emma

(Canute's first English partner - the Church did not recognise her as his

wife - was set aside, later appointed regent of Norway). During his reign,

Canute also became King of Denmark and Norway; his inheritance and

formidable personality combined to make him overlord of a huge northern

empire.

During his inevitable absences in Scandinavia, Canute used powerful English

and Danish earls to assist in England's government - English law and

methods of government remained unchanged.

A second-generation Christian for reasons of politics as well as faith,

Canute went on pilgrimage to Rome in 1027-8. (It was allegedly Christian

humility which made him reject his courtiers' flattery by demonstrating

that even he could not stop the waves; later hostile chroniclers were to

claim it showed madness.)

Canute was buried at Winchester. Given that there was no political or

governmental unity within his empire, it failed to survive owing to discord

between his sons by two different queens - Harold Harefoot (reigned 1035-

40) and Harthacnut (reigned 1040-42) - and the factions led by the semi-

independent Earls of Northumbria, Mercia and Wessex.

HAROLD HAREFOOT (1035-1040)

Harold Harefoot was the son of Canute and his first wife, Elfgifu. The

brothers began by sharing the kingdom of England after their father's death

- Harold Harefoot becoming king in Mercia and Northumbria, and Harthacanute

king of Wessex. During the absence of Hardicanute in Denmark, his other

kingdom, Harold Harefoot became effective sole ruler. On his death in 1040,

the kingdom of England fell to Hardicanute alone.

HARDICANUTE (1035-1042)

Harthacnut was the son of Canute and his second wife, Emma, the widow of

Ethelred II. His father intended Hardicanute to become king of the English

in preference to his elder brother Harold Harefoot, but he nearly lost his

chance of this when he became preoccupied with affairs in Denmark, of which

he was also king. Instead, Canute's eldest son, Harold Harefoot, became

king of England as a whole. In 1039 Hardicanute eventually set sail for

England, arriving to find his brother dead and himself king.

EDWARD III, THE CONFESSOR (1042-66 AD)

The penultimate Anglo-Saxon king, Edward was the oldest son of Жthelred

II and Emma. He had gone to Normandy in 1013, when his father and mother

had fled from England. He stayed there during the reign of Canute and, at

his death in 1035, led an abortive attempt to capture the crown for

himself. He was recalled, for some reason, to the court of Hardicanute, his

half-brother.

Canute had placed the local control of the shires into the hands of

several powerful earls: Leofric of Mercia (Lady Godiva's husband), Siward

of Northumbria and Godwin of Wessex, the most formidable of all. Through

Godwin's influence, Edward took the throne at the untimely death of

Hardicanute in 1042. In 1045, he married Godwin's only daughter, Edith.

Resulting from the connections made during Edward's years in Normandy, he

surrounded himself with his Norman favorites and was unduly influenced by

them. This Norman "affinity" produced great displeasure among the Saxon

nobles. The anti-Norman faction was led by (who else?) Godwin of Wessex and

his son, Harold Godwinsson, took every available opportunity to undermine

the kings favorites. Edward sought to revenge himself on Godwin by

insulting his own wife and Godwin's daughter, Edith, and confining her to

the monastery of Wherwell. Disputes also arose over the issue of royal

patronage and Edward's inclination to reward his Norman friends.

A Norman, Robert Champart, who had been Bishop of London, was made

Archbishop of Canterbury by Edward in 1051, a promotion that displeased

Godwin immensely. The Godwins were banished from the kingdom after staging

an unsuccessful rebellion against the king but returned, landing an

invasionary force in the south of England in 1052. They received great

popular support, and in the face of this, the king was forced to restore

the Godwins to favor in 1053.

Edward's greatest achievement was the construction of a new cathedral,

where virtually all English monarchs from William the Conqueror onward

would be crowned. It was determined that the minster should not be built in

London, and so a place was found to the west of the city (hence

"Westminster"). The new church was consecrated at Christmas, 1065, but

Edward could not attend due to illness.

On his deathbed, Edward named Harold as his successor, instead of the

legitimate heir, his grandson, Edgar the Жtheling. The question of

succession had been an issue for some years and remained unsettled at

Edward's death in January, 1066. It was neatly resolved, however, by

William the Conqueror, just nine months later.

There is some question as to what kind of person Edward was. After his

death, he was the object of a religious cult and was canonized in 1161, but

that could be viewed as a strictly political move. Some say, probably

correctly, that he was a weak, but violent man and that his reputation for

saintliness was overstated, possibly a sham perpetrated by the monks of

Westminster in the twelfth century. Others seem to think that he was deeply

religious man and a patient and peaceable ruler.

HAROLD II (1066)

On Edward's death, the King's Council (the Witenagemot) confirmed

Edward's brother-in-law Harold, Earl of Wessex, as King. With no royal

blood, and fearing rival claims from William Duke of Normandy and the King

of Norway, Harold had himself crowned in Westminster Abbey on 6 January

1066, the day after Edward's death. During his brief reign, Harold showed

he was an outstanding commander.

In September, Harald Hardrada of Norway (aided by Harold's alienated

brother Tostig, Earl of Northumbria) invaded England and was defeated by

Harold at the Battle of Stamford Bridge near York. Hardrada's army had

invaded using over 300 ships; so many were killed that only 25 ships were

needed to transport the survivors home.

Meanwhile, William, Duke of Normandy (who claimed that Harold had

acknowledged him in 1064 as Edward's successor) had landed in Sussex.

Harold rushed south and, on 14 October 1066, his army of some 7,000

infantry was defeated on the field of Senlac near Hastings. Harold was hit

in the eye by an arrow and cut down by Norman swords.

An abbey was later built, in 1070, to fulfil a vow made by William I, and

its high altar was placed on the spot where Harold fell. The ruins of

Battle Abbey still remain with a stone slab marking where Harold died.

THE NORMANS

The Normans came to govern as a result of one of the most famous battles

in English history, the Battle of Hastings in 1066. From 1066 to 1154 four

kings ruled. The Domesday Book, that great source of English landholding,

was published, the forests were extended, the Exchequer was founded and a

start was made on the Tower of London. In religious affairs, the Gregorian

reform movement gathered pace and forced concessions, while the machinery

of government developed to support the country while Henry was fighting

abroad. Meanwhile, the social landscape was altered, as the Norman

aristocracy came to prominence. Many of the nobles struggled to keep a hold

on both Normandy and England, as divided rule meant the threat of conflict.

This was the case when William the Conqueror died. His eldest son,

Robert, became Duke of Normandy, while the next youngest, William, became

king of England. Their younger brother Henry would become king on William

II's death. The uneasy divide continued until Henry captured and imprisoned

his elder brother.

The question of the succession continued to weigh heavily over the

remainder of the period. Henry's son died, and his nominated heir Matilda

was denied the throne by her cousin, Henry's nephew, Stephen. There then

followed a period of civil war. Matilda married Geoffrey Plantagenet of

Anjou, who took control of Normandy. The duchy was therefore separated from

England once again.

A compromise was eventually reached whereby the son of Matilda and

Geoffrey would be heir to the English crown, while Stephen's son would

inherit his baronial lands. All this meant that in 1154 Henry II would

ascend to the throne as the first undisputed King in over 100 years - proof

of the dynastic uncertainty of the Norman period.

THE CONTINENTAL DYNASTIES

1066 - 1216

HAROLD BLUETOOTH,

King of Denmark

Gunhilda of = SWEYN FORKBEARD

Styrbjorn = Thyra

Poland

Richard I, Duke of

Sweden

of Normandy

Thorgils Sprakalegg

Elgiva of (1) = CANUTE = (2) Emma, widow of Judith

= Richard II,

Northampton (1016–1035) ATHELRED II

daughter of Duke of Gytha =

Godwin,

Conan I Normandy

Earl of

Wessex

HAROLD HARDICANUTE

HAREFOOT (1040–1042)

Robert I = Herlиve

(1035–1040)

Duke of

Normandy

HAROLD

II EDWARD THE=Eadgyth

(1066)

CONFESSOR

(1042–1066)

WILLIAM I

= Matilda, dau. of

THE CONQUEROR

Baldwin V, Count

(1066–1087)

of Flanders

WILLIAM II

Adela = Stephen, Adela of =

HENRY I,

(1087–1100)

Count of Louvain

(1100–1135)

Blois

STEPHEN

Matilda = Geoffrey, Count

(1135–1154)

of Anjou and Maine

HENRY II =

Eleanor of

(1154–1189)

Aquitaine, divorced

wife of LOUIS VII,

King of

France

RICHARD I JOHN

= Isabella, dau. of

(1189–1199) (1199–1216)

Count of

Angoulкme

HENRY III

(1216–1272)

WILLIAM I «THE CONQUEROR» (1066-1087)

Born around 1028, William was the illegitimate son of Duke Robert I of

Normandy, and Herleve (also known as Arlette), daughter of a tanner in

Falaise. Known as 'William the Bastard' to his contemporaries, his

illegitimacy shaped his career when he was young. On his father's death in

1035, William was recognised by his family as the heir - an exception to

the general rule that illegitimacy barred succession. His great uncle

looked after the Duchy during William's minority, and his overlord, King

Henry I of France, knighted him at the age of 15. From 1047 onwards,

William successfully dealt with rebellion inside Normandy involving his

kinsmen and threats from neighbouring nobles, including attempted invasions

by his former ally King Henry I of France in 1054 (the French forces were

defeated at the Battle of Mortemer) and 1057. William's military successes

and reputation helped him to negotiate his marriage to Mathilda, daughter

of Count Baldwin V of Flanders. At the time of his invasion of England,

William was a very experienced and ruthless military commander, ruler and

administrator who had unified Normandy and inspired fear and respect

outside his duchy. William's claim to the English throne was based on his

assertion that, in 1051, Edward the Confessor had promised him the throne

(he was a distant cousin) and that Harold II - having sworn in 1064 to

uphold William's right to succeed to that throne - was therefore a usurper.

Furthermore, William had the support of Emperor Henry IV and papal

approval. William took seven months to prepare his invasion force, using

some 600 transport ships to carry around 7,000 men (including 2,000-3,000

cavalry) across the Channel. On 28 September 1066, with a favourable wind,

William landed unopposed at Pevensey and, within a few days, raised

fortifications at Hastings. Having defeated an earlier invasion by the King

of Norway at the Battle of Stamford Bridge near York in late September,

Harold undertook a forced march south, covering 250 miles in some nine days

to meet the new threat, gathering inexperienced reinforcements to replenish

his exhausted veterans as he marched. At the Battle of Senlac (near

Hastings) on 14 October, Harold's weary and under-strength army faced

William's cavalry (part of the forces brought across the Channel) supported

by archers. Despite their exhaustion, Harold's troops were equal in number

(they included the best infantry in Europe equipped with their terrible two-

handled battle axes) and they had the battlefield advantage of being based

on a ridge above the Norman positions. The first uphill assaults by the

Normans failed and a rumour spread that William had been killed; William

rode among the ranks raising his helmet to show he was still alive. The

battle was close-fought: a chronicler described the Norman counter-attacks

and the Saxon defence as 'one side attacking with all mobility, the other

withstanding as though rooted to the soil'. Three of William's horses were

killed under him. William skilfully co-ordinated his archers and cavalry,

both of which the English forces lacked. During a Norman assault, Harold

was killed - hit by an arrow and then mowed down by the sword of a mounted

knight. Two of his brothers were also killed. The demoralised English

forces fled. (In 1070, as penance, William had an abbey built on the site

of the battle, with the high altar occupying the spot where Harold fell.

The ruins of Battle Abbey, and the town of Battle, which grew up around it,

remain.) William was crowned on Christmas Day 1066 in Westminster Abbey.

Three months later, he was confident enough to return to Normandy leaving

two joint regents (one of whom was his half-brother Odo, Bishop of Bayeux,

who was later to commission the Bayeux Tapestry) behind to administer the

kingdom. However, it took William six years to consolidate his conquest,

and even then he had to face constant plotting and fighting on both sides

of the Channel. In 1068, Harold's sons raided the south-west coast of

England (dealt with by William's local commanders), and there were

uprisings in the Welsh Marches, Devon and Cornwall. William appointed earls

who, in Wales and in all parts of the kingdom, undertook to guard the

threatened frontiers and maintain internal security in return for land. In

1069, the Danes, in alliance with Prince Edgar the Aetheling (Ethelred's

great-grandson) and other English nobles, invaded the north and took York.

Taking personal charge, and pausing only to deal with the rising at

Stafford, William drove the Danes back to their ships on the Humber. In a

harsh campaign lasting into 1070, William systematically devastated Mercia

and Northumbria to deprive the Danes of their supplies and prevent recovery

of English resistance. Churches and monasteries were burnt, and

agricultural land was laid to waste, creating a famine for the unarmed and

mostly peasant population which lasted at least nine years. Although the

Danes were bribed to leave the north, King Sweyn of Denmark and his ships

threatened the east coast (in alliance with various English, including

Hereward the Wake) until a treaty of peace was concluded in June 1070.

Further north, where the boundary with Scotland was unclear, King Malcolm

III was encroaching into England. Yet again, William moved swiftly and

moved land and sea forces north to invade Scotland. The Treaty of Abernethy

in 1072 marked a truce, which was reinforced by Malcolm's eldest son being

accepted as a hostage. William consolidated his conquest by starting a

castle-building campaign in strategic areas. Originally these castles were

wooden towers on earthen 'mottes' (mounds) with a bailey (defensive area)

surrounded by earth ramparts, but many were later rebuilt in stone. By the

end of William's reign over 80 castles had been built throughout his

kingdom, as a permanent reminder of the new Norman feudal order. William's

wholesale confiscation of land from English nobles and their heirs (many

nobles had died at the battles of Stamford Bridge and Senlac) enabled him

to recruit and retain an army, by demanding military duties in exchange for

land tenancy granted to Norman, French and Flemish allies. He created up to

180 'honours' (lands scattered through shires, with a castle as the

governing centre), and in return had some 5,000 knights at his disposal to

repress rebellions and pursue campaigns; the knights were augmented by

mercenaries and English infantry from the Anglo-Saxon militia, raised from

local levies. William also used the fyrd, the royal army - a military

arrangement which had survived the Conquest. The King's tenants-in-chief in

turn created knights under obligation to them and for royal duties (this

was called subinfeudation), with the result that private armies centred

around private castles were created - these were to cause future problems

of anarchy for unfortunate or weak kings. By the end of William's reign, a

small group of the King's tenants had acquired about half of England's

landed wealth. Only two Englishmen still held large estates directly from

the King. A foreign aristocracy had been imposed as the new governing

class. The expenses of numerous campaigns, together with an economic slump

(caused by the shifts in landed wealth, and the devastation of northern

England for military and political reasons), prompted William to order a

full-scale investigation into the actual and potential wealth of the

kingdom to maximise tax revenues. The Domesday survey was prompted by

ignorance of the state of land holding in England, as well as the result of

the costs of defence measures in England and renewed war in France. The

scope, speed, efficiency and completion of this survey was remarkable for

its time and resulted in the two-volume Domesday Book of 1086, which still

exists today. William needed to ensure the direct loyalty of his feudal

tenants. The 1086 Oath of Salisbury was a gathering of William's 170

tenants-in-chief and other important landowners who took an oath of fealty

to William. William's reach extended elsewhere into the Church and the

legal system. French superseded the vernacular (Anglo-Saxon). Personally

devout, William used his bishops to carry out administrative duties.

Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury from 1070, was a first-class

administrator who assisted in government when William was absent in France,

and who reorganised the Church in England. Having established the primacy

of his archbishopric over that of York, and with William's approval,

Lanfranc excommunicated rebels, and set up Church or spiritual courts to

deal with ecclesiastical matters. Lanfranc also replaced English bishops

and abbots (some of whom had already been removed by the Council of

Winchester under papal authority) with Norman or French clergy to reduce

potential political resistance. In addition, Canterbury and Durham

Cathedrals were rebuilt and some of the bishops' sees were moved to urban

centres. At his coronation, William promised to uphold existing laws and

customs. The Anglo-Saxon shire courts and 'hundred' courts (which

administered defence and tax, as well as justice matters) remained intact,

as did regional variations and private Anglo-Saxon jurisdictions. To

strengthen royal justice, William relied on sheriffs (previously smaller

landowners, but replaced by influential nobles) to supervise the

administration of justice in existing county courts, and sent members of

his own court to conduct important trials. However, the introduction of

Church courts, the mix of Norman/Roman law and the differing customs led to

a continuing complex legal framework. More severe forest laws reinforced

William's conversion of the New Forest into a vast Royal deer reserve.

These laws caused great resentment, and to English chroniclers the New

Forest became a symbol of William's greed. Nevertheless the King maintained

peace and order. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 1087 declared 'he was a very

stern and violent man, so no one dared do anything contrary to his will ...

Amongst other things the good security he made in this country is not to be

forgotten.' William spent the last months of his reign in Normandy,

fighting a counter-offensive in the French Vexin territory against King

Philip's annexation of outlying Normandy territory. Before his death on 9

September 1087, William divided his 'Anglo-Norman' state between his sons.

(The scene was set for centuries of expensive commitments by successive

English monarchs to defend their inherited territories in France.) William

bequeathed Normandy as he had promised to his eldest son Robert, despite

their bitter differences (Robert had sided with his father's enemies in

Normandy, and even wounded and defeated his father in a battle there in

1079). His son, William Rufus, was to succeed William as King of England,

and the third remaining son, Henry, was left 5,000 pounds in silver.

William was buried in his abbey foundation of St Stephen at Caen.

Desecrated by Huguenots (1562) and Revolutionaries (1793), the burial place

of the first Norman king of England is marked by a simple stone slab.

WILLIAM II (KNOWN AS WILLIAM RUFUS) (1087-1100)

Strong, outspoken and ruddy (hence his nickname 'Rufus'), William II

(reigned 1087-1100) extended his father's policies, taking royal power to

the far north of England. Ruthless in his relations with his brother

Robert, William extended his grip on the duchy of Normandy under an

agreement between the brothers in 1091. (Robert went on crusade in 1096.)

William's relations with the Church were not easy; he took over

Archbishop Lanfranc's revenues after the latter's death in 1089, kept other

bishoprics vacant to make use of their revenues, and had numerous arguments

with Lanfranc's popular successor, Anselm. William died on 2 August 1100,

after being shot by an arrow whilst hunting in the New Forest.

HENRY I (1100-1135)

William's younger brother Henry succeeded to the throne. He was crowned

three days after his brother's death, against the possibility that his

eldest brother Robert might claim the English throne. After the decisive

battle of Tinchebrai in 1106 in France, Henry completed his conquest of

Normandy from Robert, who then (unusually even for that time) spent the

last 28 years of his life as his brother's prisoner. An energetic,

decisive and occasionally cruel ruler, Henry centralised the administration

of England and Normandy in the royal court, using 'viceroys' in Normandy

and a group of advisers in England to act on his behalf when he was absent

across the Channel. Henry successfully sought to increase royal revenues,

as shown by the official records of his exchequer (the Pipe Roll of 1130,

the first exchequer account to survive). He established peaceful relations

with Scotland, through his marriage to Mathilda of Scotland. Henry's name

'Beauclerc' denoted his good education (as the youngest son, his parents

possibly expected that he would become a bishop); Henry was probably the

first Norman king to be fluent in English. In 1120, his legitimate sons

William and Richard drowned in the White Ship which sank in the English

Channel. This posed a succession problem, as Henry never allowed any of his

illegitimate children to expect succession to either England or Normandy.

Henry had a legitimate daughter Matilda (widow of Emperor Henry V,

subsequently married to the Count of Anjou). However, it was his nephew

Stephen (reigned 1135-54), son of William the Conqueror's daughter Adela,

who succeeded Henry after his death, allegedly caused by eating too many

lampreys (fish) in 1135, as the barons mostly opposed the idea of a female

ruler.

STEPHEN AND MATILDA (1135-1154)

Though charming, attractive and (when required) a brave warrior, Stephen

(reigned 1135-54) lacked ruthlessness and failed to inspire loyalty. He

could neither control his friends nor subdue his enemies, despite the

support of his brother Henry of Blois (Bishop of Winchester) and his able

wife Matilda of Boulogne. Henry I's daughter Matilda invaded England in

1139 to claim the throne, and the country was plunged into civil war.

Although anarchy never spread over the whole country, local feuds were

pursued under the cover of the civil war; the bond between the King and the

nobles broke down, and senior figures (including Stephen's brother Henry)

freely changed allegiances as it suited them. In 1141, Stephen was captured

at Lincoln and his defeat seemed certain. However, Matilda's arrogant

behaviour antagonised even her own supporters (Angevins), and Stephen was

released in exchange for her captured ally and illegitimate half-brother,

Earl Robert of Gloucester. After the latter's death in 1147, Matilda

retired to Normandy (which her husband, the Count of Anjou had conquered)

in 1148. Stephen's throne was still disputed. Matilda's eldest son, Henry,

who had been given Normandy by his father in 1150 and who had married the

heiress Eleanor Duchess of Aquitaine, invaded England in 1149 and again in

1153. Stephen fought stubbornly against Henry; Stephen even attempted to

ensure his son Eustace's succession by having him crowned in Stephen's own

lifetime. The Church refused (having quarrelled with the king some years

previously); Eustace's death later in 1153 helped lead to a negotiated

peace (the treaty of Wallingford) under which Henry would inherit the

throne after Stephen's death.

THE ANGEVINS

Henry II, the son of Geoffrey Plantagenet and Henry I's daughter

Matilda, was the first in a long line of 14 Plantagenet kings, stretching

from Henry II's accession through to Richard III's death in 1485. Within

that line, however, four distinct Royal Houses can be identified: Angevin,

Plantagenet, Lancaster and York.

The first Angevin King, Henry II, began the period as arguably the most

powerful monarch in Europe, with lands stretching from the Scottish borders

to the Pyrenees. In addition, Ireland was added to his inheritance, a

mission entrusted to him by Pope Adrian IV (the only English Pope). A new

administrative zeal was evident at the beginning of the period and an

efficient system of government was formulated. The justice system

developed. However there were quarrels with the Church, which became more

powerful following the murder of Thomas а Becket.

As with many of his predecessors, Henry II spent much of his time away

from England fighting abroad. This was taken to an extreme by his son

Richard, who spent only 10 months of a ten-year reign in the country due to

his involvement in the crusades. The last of the Angevin kings was John,

whom history has judged harshly. By 1205, six years into his reign, only a

fragment of the vast Angevin empire acquired by Henry II remained. John

quarrelled with the Pope over the appointment of the Archbishop of

Canterbury, eventually surrendering. He was also forced to sign the Magna

Carta in 1215, which restated the rights of the church, the barons and all

in the land. John died in ignominy, having broken the contract, leading the

nobles to summon aid from France and creating a precarious position for his

heir, Henry III.

HENRY II CURTMANTLE (1154-1189)

Henry II ruled over an empire which stretched from the Scottish border

to the Pyrenees. One of the strongest, most energetic and imaginative

rulers, Henry was the inheritor of three dynasties who had acquired

Aquitaine by marriage; his charters listed them: 'King of the English, Duke

of the Normans and Aquitanians and Count of the Angevins'. The King spent

only 13 years of his reign in England; the other 21 years were spent on the

continent in his territories in what is now France. Henry's rapid movements

in carrying out his dynastic responsibilities astonished the French king,

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